BUILDING  SUPERINTENDENCE  FOR 
STEEL  STRUCTURES 


A  PRACTICAL  WORK  ON  THE  DUTIES  OF  A  BUILDING  SUPERIN- 
TENDENT FOR  STEEL-FRAME  BUILDINGS  AND  THE 
PROPER  METHODS   OF   HANDLING   THE 
MATERIALS  AND  CONSTRUCTION 


BY 


EDGAR  S.  BELDEN 


VICE-FKESIDENT,    GEORGE    A.    FULLER    CONSTRUCTION    COMPANY 
KANSAS    CITY,    MISSOURI 


ILLUSTRATED 


AMERICAN  TECHNICAL  SOCIETY 
CHICAGO 

1917 


COPYRIGHT,  1917,  BY 

AMERICAN  TECHNICAL  SOCIETY 


COPYKIQHTED  IN   GREAT  BRITAIN 
ALL  RIGHTS  RESERVED 


-  . 

• 


•     ..'        !       I 


F. 


INTRODUCTION 

HPTEE  problems  of  superintendence  of  steel  frame  structures  aie 
JL  so  different  from  those  which  arise  in  connection  with  other 
types  of  buildings  that  it  has  been  necessary  for  men  to  make  a 
specialty  of  building  superintendence  for  steel  buildings.  The 
knowledge  of  the  best  types  of  design,  the  proper  methods  of  fabri- 
cation, the  tests  which  should  be  connected  for  quality  of  steel,  and 
finally  the  proper  methods  of  erecting  the  steel,  all  call  for  special 
training  apart  from  the  usual  building  superintendence  methods. 

<I  It  is  with  the  idea  of  giving  engineer  and  layman  the  most  au- 
thoritative information  on  this  important  subject  that  this  little 
volume  has  been  published.  It  does  not  attempt  to  go  into  the 
theory  of  design  of  steel  structures,  but  confines  itself  to  the  prob- 
lems of  superintendence  alone.  The  author  is  abundantly  quali- 
fied to  speak  on  this  subject  as  he  has  erected  many  steel  buildings 
for  one  of  the  biggest  contracting  firms  in  the  country.  He  has 
given  the  reader  the  benefit  of  his  experience  as  a  superintendent 
by  outlining  the  duties  of  this  office,  and  making  clear  the  engineer- 
ing, legal,  and  practical  knowledge  required.  Then  he  goes  into 
detail  regarding  the  inspection  of  the  steel  material  in  the  fabrica- 
tion shops  and  the  proper  method  of  storing  it  until  needed.  The 
problems  of  erection  are  all  treated — equipment  required,  founda- 
tions, the  handling  of  the  steel,  riveting,  and  painting. 

<I  The  author  closes  the  article  with  some  advice  as  to  the  proper 
organization  of  his  force,  how  the  superintendent  should  work  with 
architect  and  owner  and  what  qualities  a  good  superintendent 
should  possess.  Altogether  the  article  should  prove  a  valuable 
addition  to  the  technical  literature  in  this  field. 


365549 


REPUBLIC  BUILDING,  CORNER  STATE  AND  ADAMS  STREETS,  CHICAGO 

Courtesy  of  Holabird  and  Roche,  Architects,  Chicago 


CONTENTS 

PAGE 

Introduction 1 

Classes  of  structures 1 

Structural  steel 1 

Good  design 2 

Divisions  of  work 2 

General  superintendence  problems 5 

Reconciling  theory  and  practice 5 

Value  of  forethought 5 

Judgment  in  handling  mistakes 5 

Theories  of  designing  engineer  vs.  actualities  of  contractor 6 

Problem  of  handling  men 6 

Progress  charts 8 

Shifting  character  of  contractor's  organization 8 

Handling  business  details 9 

Value  of  business  methods  with  business  men 9 

Appointments 10 

Contractor's  payments 10 

Superintendent's  rulings 10 

Purchases 11 

Legal  points  encountered 11 

Importance  of  legal  knowledge 11 

Rudiments  of  law 11 

Field  of  private  law 12 

Contracts 12 

Agency 16 

Liability  law 18 

Building  laws 18 

Lien  laws 18 

Application  of  the  law 19 

Duties  regarding  drawings 20 

Draftsmanship  and  superintendence  compared 20 

Knowledge  of  drawings  important 20 

Accuracy  of  drawings 21 

Supplying  workmen  with  drawings 21 

Handling  drawings 21 

Classes  of  drawings 22 

Conflict  in  requirements 23 

Inspection  of  material  and  erection  of  steel  work 24 

Mill  inspection 24 

Knowledge  necessary  for  mill  inspector 24 

Cast  iron 25 

Wrought  iron 26 

Steel 27 

Necessity  of  mill  inspection 30 


CONTENTS 

Inspection  of  material  and  erection  of  steel  work  (Continued)  PAGE 

Shop  inspection 30 

Amount  of  inspection  varies  with  work 30 

Drawings  in  shop 31 

Shop  processes 31 

Reports 38 

Inspection  and  superintendence  of  erection 38 

Kinds  of  structure 38 

Different  methods  of  erecting  steel . 39 

Capacity  of  equipment 40 

Omission  of  small  items 41 

Necessary  risks 41 

Adequate  equipment 41 

Derricks  used  in  steel  erection 42 

Classes  of  derricks 42 

Types  of  derricks 48 

Cableways 60 

Superintendent's  authority  over  equipment  and  work 60 

Interference  with  contractor  ill-advised 60 

Honest  and  dishonest  contractors 61 

Overloading  structures 61 

Hoisting  engines .  .  .  62 

Tackle 62 

Classification , 62 

Chains 63 

Cordage 64 

Wire  rope 65 

Engines,  power,  etc 67 

Kinds  of  power 67 

Size  of  engine 67 

Types  of  engine 69 

Hand  powers 70 

Loads 71 

Tackle  blocks,  shackles,  hooks,  and  wire-rope  fastenings 71 

Lines  and  levels  and  how  to  establish  them 71 

Importance  of  correct  location 71 

Employment  of  licensed  surveyor 72 

Superintendent's  check  on  lines  and  levels 72 

Preserving  marks 72 

Locating  foundations 73 

Setting  foundation  shoes 73 

Locating  grillage  beams 75 

Grouting  shoes 75 

Foundations 75 

Soil 75 

Types  of  foundations 77 


CONTENTS 

Foundations  (Continued)  PAGE 

Proper  location 77 

Importance  of  foundations.  . 78 

Concrete  and  other  masonry 78 

Foundation  steel 79 

Pile  foundations.  .  . 79 

Caissons 80 

Settlement  of  adjacent  structures 80 

System  in  handling  steel 81 

Steps  in  erection  process 82 

Temporary  plank  floors 83 

Plumbing  and  alignment. 83 

Shims 84 

Floor  beams 84 

Small  castings 84 

Field  riveting 85 

Painting 89 

Object  of  painting 89 

Concrete  as  preservative 89 

Kind  of  paint 89 

Inspection  of  paint 90 

Miscellaneous  problems 90 

Large  organizations 91 

Field  organization 91 

Proper  size  of  force 92 

Proper  use  of  organization 92 

Contact  with  employer , 92 

Necessary  qualities  for  superintendent 93 

System  and  speed 94 

Proper  sequence  of  work 94 


WOOLWORTH  BUILDING  IN  PROCESS  OF  CONSTRUCTION 

Cass  Gilbert,  Architect 

For  other  views  see  opposite  foreword  and  page  349  of  this  volume 
Courtesy  of  Thompson-Starrett  Company,  New  York  City 


BUILDING  SUPERINTENDENCE 


STEEL  CONSTRUCTION 

INTRODUCTION 

Classes  of  Structures.  Steel  structures  are  practically  divided 
into  two  classes:  first,  those  that  are  built  as  part  of  buildings;  and, 
second,  all  those  used  for  other  purposes,  such  as  bridges,  viaducts, 
railroads,  etc.  Steel  structures  are  now  usually  designed  by  engi- 
neers who  have  specialized  in  one  of  the  two  classes.  The  details  of 
design  and  methods  employed  in  the  fabrication  or  in  the  manufac- 
ture of  the  parts  of  steel  structures  are  somewhat  different  for  the 
two  classes. 

Steel  for  bridges,  etc.,  and  in  a  limited  way  for  buildings,  has 
been  used  for  a  great  number  of  years,  but  the  modern  practice  of 
employing  steel  skeletons  has  been  developed  entirely  since  1883, 
when  the  first  structure  of  this  kind  was  erected  in  Chicago,  namely, 
the  Home  Insurance  Building  at  the  northeast  corner  of  LaSalle 
and  Adams  streets. 

Structural  Steel.  Manufacturing  Processes.  Steel,  before  it 
reaches  the  site  of  the  structure  ready  for  erection,  goes  through 
several  different  processes  and  stages  of  manufacture.  First,  the 
iron  ore  is  smelted  and  made  into  pig  iron;  the  pig  iron  is  then  con- 
verted into  steel  billets;  these  in  turn  are  rolled  into  what  are  called 
structural  shapes,  such  as  plates,  bars,  angles,  tees,  channels, 
I-beams,  etc.,  all  of  which  is  done  at  what  is  usually  termed  "the 
mill".  The  structural  shapes  are  next  taken  to  the  fabrication  shop 
where  they  are  cut,  punched,  assembled,  riveted,  and  bolted  together, 
and  otherwise  manufactured  according  to  the  specifications,  into  the 
different  parts  of  the  structure,  such  as  columns,  girders,  etc.,  and 
made  complete  so  as  to  be  easily  erected  at  the  site  of  the  building. 

Standard  Sections.  Certain  methods  of  procedure  and  details 
of  construction  have  been  standardized  for  both  classes  of  steel 
structures.  The  standards  used  in  steel  buildings  are  of  recent 


2  BUILDING  SUPERINTENDENCE 

development  and  have  been  formed  to  meet  the  practical  conditions 
encountered  in  the  manufacture  and  erection  of  such  work,  prin- 
cipally to  lower  the  cost  and  to  facilitate  the  speed  of  completion. 
Radical  departure  from  standards  in  the  steelwork  means  delay  and 
extra  expense.  A  rolling  mill  with  a  large  business  in  making  stand- 
ard stock  shapes  dislikes  to  stop  its  machinery  to  make  special 
shapes,  and  does  so  only  when  paid  handsomely  for  the  extra  trouble 
involved.  Fabrication  shops  have  expensive  machinery  built  for 
standard  work  and  organizations  of  men  trained  accordingly.  It 
costs  money  and  time  to  change  the  machinery  and  to  educate  the 
men  to  departure  from  the  system  of  standards. 

Good  Design.  Good  designing  of  steel  structures  allows  a 
maximum  amount  of  assembling  work  to  be  accomplished  at  the 
shop,  leaving  a  minimum  amount  to  be  done  at  the  site  of  erection, 
depending  always  upon  the  limitations  of  transportation  of  materials 
from  the  shop  to  the  site  and  upon  those  of  the  machinery  available 
for  use  in  the  work  of  erection.  Railroads  are  limited  as  to  the  size 
and  weight  of  the  pieces  which  they  can  handle,  and  it  is  better  and 
more  economical  to  employ  machinery  and  equipment  that  can  be 
used  for  several  jobs,  than  that  which  is  limited  to  one  only.  There- 
fore, the  separate  pieces  of  steel  should  come  to  the  site  in  shapes 
and  sizes  adapted  to  standard  erection  equipment. 

Divisions  of  Work.  General  Divisions.  The  duties  of  the 
engineer  and  of  the  architect  divide  themselves  into  what  are  called 
office  work  and  field  work.  The  office  work  consists  briefly  in  mak- 
ing the  design;  in  preparing  the  contract,  drawings,  specifications, 
and  other  papers;  and  in  receiving  the  bids  and  awarding  the  con- 
tracts for  the  job. 

The  field  work  performed  by  an  engineer  or  his  subordinates 
is  termed  the  superintendence  of  the  work.  It  consists  of  inspec- 
tion; examination;  testings;  and  supervision,  primarily  to  see  that 
the  work  in  the  mill,  the  shop,  and  at  the  site  conforms  to  the  con- 
tract requirements.  It  also  includes  making  reports  of  progress, 
etc.,  forming  estimates  of  amounts  due  the  contractors  from  time 
to  time,  and  other  duties  chiefly  of  a  business  nature. 

Superintendent.  The  engineer  or  his  subordinate  who  under- 
takes to  superintend  the  work  of  erecting  a  steel  structure  must 
have  good  health  and  steady  nerves;  he  must  also  be  a  good  climber, 


BUILDING  SUPERINTENDENCE  3 

because  it  is  necessary  for  him  to  go  to  all  kinds  of  places,  sometimes 
at  great  heights,  in  order  to  give  the  work  proper  and  adequate 
inspection.  He  must  be  a  man  of  good  judgment  and  he  should 
never  forget  that  he  is  part  of  an  organization  or  machine  whose 
object  should  be  the  completion  of  the  structure  in  the  shortest 
time,  with  the  least  confusion,  and  the  smallest  expenditure  of 
money  consistent  with  the  result  desired.  The  superintendent  must 
remember  that  he  is  a  cog  in  this  machine.  If  the  cog  wants  to  go 
the  wrong  way,  or  if  it  does  not  fit  into  the  other  cogs,  great  loss  of 
effort  and  sometimes  great  damage  may  be  occasioned.  His  prin- 
cipal duty  is  to  see  that  the  work  conforms  to  the  contract  require- 
ments, and  this  must  be  done  in  a  helpful  way.  A  superintendent 
who  does  not  know  his  business  or  who  has  a  disagreeable  disposi- 
tion may  so  hamper  the  work  and  hinder  the  contractor  as  to  delay 
the  completion  of  the  structure,  and  thus  defeat  the  whole  object  of 
the  operation.  An  owner  primarily  wants  his  structure  erected 
according  to  the  contract  requirements,  but  he  is  also  more  than 
likely  to  want  it  completed  as  soon  as  possible.  Often  the  entire 
success  of  the  owner's  plans  is  dependent  upon  the  work  being  done 
in  a  short  time;  therefore  the  superintendent  is  not  working  in  the 
interests  of  the  owner  if  he,  for  any  reason  whatsoever,  unnecessarily 
impedes  it.  He  is  also  a  poor  manager  if  he  allows  inferior  work- 
manship and  materials  to  enter  into  the  structure,  or  if  he  permits 
the  contractors,  or  anyone  else  connected  with  the  operation,  to 
delay  it  unreasonably.  In  fact,  he  must  do  his  own  work  properly, 
promptly,  and  at  the  right  tune,  and  must  see  that  all  others  inter- 
ested in  the  operation  do  the  same.  "All  others  interested"  includes 
not  only  the  contractors  and  the  men  under  the  superintendent  but 
those  over  him  as  well.  To  be  able  to  accomplish  all  that  is 
demanded  of  him,  a  superintendent  must  be  diplomatic,  and,  it  goes 
without  saying,  must  know  the  details  of  his  business.  We  shall 
later  discuss  more  at  length  some  of  the  duties  required  of  a  super- 
intendent. 

Designing  Engineer.  The  engineer  who  specializes  in  the 
design  of  bridges,  etc.,  is  usually  supreme  in  authority  in  his  realm 
of  work  and,  because  of  the  nature  of  these  structures,  he  demands 
the  greatest  care  and  accuracy  both  in  the  manufacture  of  the  parts 
and  in  their  erection. 


4  BUILDING  SUPERINTENDENCE 

The  engineer  who  designs  the  steelwork  for  buildings  must 
make  his  work  conform  to  the  conditions  imposed  upon  it  by  the 
design  created  by  the  architect,  who  is  usually  supreme  in  authority 
both  as  regards  all  matters  of  design  and  as  regards  the  procedure 
at  the  building. 

In  modern  practice,  the  work  of  the  designing  engineer  and  that 
of  the  fabricator  and  of  erector  of  steel  structures  are  entirely  sepa- 
rate and  distinct,  the  one  designing,  and  the  others  contracting  to 
manufacture  and  to  erect  the  structure  as  designed.  Sometimes 
the  designer  and  the  erector  are  employed  by  the  fabricator,  but  though 
each  of  the  three  more  often  performs  his  share  of  the  work  separately, 
yet  each  is  more  or  less  dependent  upon  the  work  of  the  others. 

The  designer  deals  principally  with  the  theoretical  construction 
and  the  economical  use  of  the  materials  entering  into  the  work,  so 
that  the  owner  who  employs  him  may  have  a  structure  to  be  used 
for  certain  purposes  at  a  minimum  expenditure  of  tune  and  money. 

The  fabricator  deals  mostly  with  the  economical  use  of  shop 
machinery,  methods,  and  the  employment  of  workmen  in  the  shop, 
all  to  the  end  of  making  the  cost  of  the  shop  work  as  small  as  possible. 

The  erector  is  concerned  with  a  similar  problem  at  the  site  of 
the  structure. 

The  designer,  although  he  must  necessarily  know  a  great  deal 
of  the  methods  of  shop  practice  and  of  those  employed  by  erectors, 
does  not  dictate  to  the  fabricator  or  to  the  erector  altogether  as  to 
how  the  desired  results  are  to  be  obtained.  He  does  specify,  how- 
ever, certain  processes  which  he  wishes  employed  by  the  fabricator 
or  erector  and  he  should  do  so;  for  example,  while  he  may  desire 
that  the  rivets  be  driven  by  use  of  power  riveters  of  given  capacity, 
he  allows  the  others  to  determine  what  make  of  riveter  shall  be  used 
and  what  kind  of  power  shall  be  employed — whether  steam,  air, 
electric,  or  other.  Again,  while  conditions  may  require  the  designer 
to  specify  that  the  erector  shall  allow  no  smoke  to  be  made  at  the 
site,  he  permits  the  latter  to  determine  just  how  this  result  can  best 
be  obtained. 

The  designer  should  always  be  supreme  [in  authority  as  to  the 
results  desired.  He  should,  however,  take  into  consideration  the 
limiting  conditions  of  shop  and  erection,  and  the  less  he  dictates  to 
the  fabricator  and  to  the  erector  as  to  the  methods  to  be  employed 


BUILDING  SUPERINTENDENCE  5 

in  obtaining  the  desired  results,  the  more  freedom  he  allows  them  in 
the  use  of  machinery,  equipment,  and  men  available,  thus  enabling 
them  to  do  the  work  at  less  cost  to  the  owner.  On  the  other  hand, 
the  designing  engineer  should  not  be  too  general  in  his  specifications 
of  requirements,  because  it  is  right  and  desirable  that  bidders  for 
certain  work  should  bid  on  essentially  the  same  thing  and  that  there 
should  be  no  uncertainty  as  to  the  results  desired.  The  specifica- 
tions of  the  competent  engineer  must  be  a  happy  medium  between 
those  too  exacting  and  those  too  general. 

GENERAL  SUPERINTENDENCE  PROBLEMS 
RECONCILING  THEORY  AND  PRACTICE 

Value  of  Forethought.  Theoretically,  a  knowledge  of  the  con- 
tract requirements  and  of  the  construction  details,  together  with 
authority  to  reject  all  work  that  does  not  conform  to  them,  is  all 
that  a  superintendent  needs  in  the  way  of  equipment  to  make  an 
expert.  Practically,  he  needs  much  more. 

Forethought  is  most  important.  It  is  proper  to  exercise  author- 
ity to  reject  work,  but  it  is  far  better  to  use  forethought  so  that  the 
work  will  need  no  rejection.  It  will  be  found  that  work  once  com- 
pleted is  not  always  as  easily  corrected  as  might  be  supposed.  The 
best  of  men  dislike  to  take  down  work  already  finished,  and,  when 
ordered  to  do  so,  often  make  great  efforts  to  avoid  doing  it,  thereby 
creating  much  confusion,  delay,  and  dissatisfaction.  If  rejection  of 
work  becomes  necessary,  it  must  be  done  promptly  and  decisively; 
the  matter  must  be  followed  up  and  the  correction  forced  without 
delay.  Much  expensive  alteration  is  often  caused  by  lack  of  atten- 
tion to  defective  work  at  the  right  tune. 

Judgment  in  Handling  Mistakes.  The  superintendent  must 
not  be  too  lenient  regarding  mistakes,  nor  too  credulous.  On  the 
other  hand,  he  must  not  be  too  exacting.  He  must  know  what  is 
right  and  act  accordingly,  with  justice  to  all.  A  thorough  knowl- 
edge of  the  practical  side  of  the  shop  and  field  work  gives  him  the 
assurance  to  decide  correctly  and  to  stand  by  his  decision.  Too 
much  purely  theoretical  and  too  little  practical  knowledge  often  tends 
to  make  a  superintendent  severe  and  unjust.  This  has  a  tendency 
to  work  not  only  against  the  interests  of  the  owner,  his  employer, 
but  against  his  own  as  well. 


6  BUILDING  SUPERINTENDENCE 

Theories  of  Designing  Engineer  vs.  Actualities  of  Contractor. 

The  office  force  of  the  engineer  strives  to  create  a  design  which  will 
result  in  a  structure  as  near  theoretical  perfection  as  it  can  be  under 
the  conditions  imposed  upon  it.  This  force  deals  largely  with  the 
theory  of  design,  the  theory  of  strains  and  stresses,  etc.  The  con- 
tractor has  more  largely  to  do  with  the  actualities.  The  training 
of  a  contractor  is  different  from  that  of  the  engineer.  The  former 
is  likely  to  find  out  earlier  in  his  career  what  can  be  done  with  the 
forces  of  nature,  and  what  he  may  expect  to  happen  if  these  forces 
are  defied;  therefore  his  knowledge  is  of  a  more  positive  character. 

The  superintendent  soon  learns  that  it  is  one  thing  to  put  down 
on  paper  something  that  it  is  desirable  to  execute  and  quite  another 
thing  to  accomplish  this  result  in  the  field.  One  important  reason 
for  this  lies  in  the  fact  that  the  human  element  enters  largely  into  the 
work  after  it  leaves  the  engineer's  office  and  that  it  is  with  this 
element  that  the  superintendent  must  deal,  to  a  great  extent.  The 
good  superintendent  must  have  the  ability  to  manage  men,  to  get 
them  to  do  the  right  thing  at  the  right  time. 

Problem  of  Handling  Men.  Inspection  involves  the  intelligent 
examination  of  work  and  materials  and  a  report  as  to  whether  or 
not  these  conform  to  specifications  or  to  contract  requirements, 
while  superintendence  includes  not  only  inspection,  acceptance,  and 
rejection  of  work  and  materials,  but  also  to  some  extent  supervision 
of  the  work  and  the  men.  This  supervision,  however,  must  not 
encroach  upon  or  interfere  with  the  supervision  which  is  the  duty  or 
the  right  of  the  contractor. 

Characteristics  of  the  Workmen.  A  superintendent  of  structural 
steel  construction  comes  in  contact  in  the  field  with  the  following 
men:  the  owner,  the  architect  or  the  engineer,  the  contractors,  the 
contractors'  superintendents,  the  foremen,  the  sub-foremen,  and 
the  workmen  who  are  called  "structural  steel  men"  or  "bridgemen". 
The  structural  steel  men,  or  bridgemen,  are  as  a  class,  strong,  plucky, 
and  fearless,  and  they  must  necessarily  be  so.  It  requires  steady 
nerves  and  strong  muscles  to  enable  a  man  to  climb  to  dizzy  heights, 
to  lift  heavy  loads  while  there,  with  but  little  support,  and  to  guide 
the  heavy  steel  into  place.  These  bridgemen  are  usually  men  of 
strong  likes  and  dislikes.  They  are  clannish  and  will  take  great 
risks  and  fight  death  itself  to  help  each  other  or  to  help  those  they 


BUILDING  SUPERINTENDENCE  7 

like  or  respect.  On  the  other  hand,  they  will  go  a  long  way  to  cause 
discomfiture  to  anyone  they  may  dislike.  They  are  usually  good 
and  ready  fighters,  rough  spoken,  quick  tempered,  and  used  to 
danger;  but  when  properly  approached  they  are  easy  to  handle. 
Most  of  these  men  are  of  a  roving  disposition,  going  from  town  to 
town  and  following  the  work.  They  are  usually  of  a  type  who  know 
their  business  thoroughly,  or  think  they  do,  and  dislike  extremely 
to  be  ordered  about.  Consequently  the  contractor,  his  superin- 
tendent, and  formen,  must  have  tact,  nerve,  and  physical  strength, 
in  order  to  control  and  guide  these  men  successfully.  It  is  part  of 
the  duty  of  the  engineer  or  superintendent  to  study  and  understand 
the  characteristics  of  all  the  men  with  whom  he  has  to  deal  and  to 
set  them  a  good  example. 

Personal  Relations.  As  in  most  practical  business  life,  it  will 
be  found  that  success  in  the  field  work  of  the  construction  business 
is  to  a  large  extent  a  question  of  personal  relationship.  In  order 
that  the  work  may  be  carried  on  with  the  least  amount  of  lost  effort, 
the  different  persons  connected  with  it  must  maintain  their  proper 
relationship  one  to  the  other,  and  they  must  "get  along"  together. 
The  superintendent  is  in  a  position  to  do  much  toward  preserving 
harmony  and  he  should  seize  every  opportunity  to  do  so.  He  may 
quietly  and  diplomatically  say  a  word  now  and  then  to  ease  or  alter 
the  feelings  of  the  men  toward  one  another. 

While  the  superintendent  must  maintain  a  certain  dignity,  he 
must,  nevertheless,  be  tactful  enough  not  to  consider  it  beneath  him 
to  be  friendly  with  the  men.  He  must  realize  that  his  job  is  an 
important  one  which  cannot  be  slighted,  but  if  he  assumes  the 
attitude  that  his  specific  knowledge  is  something  sacred,  only  attain- 
able by  the  favored  few,  he  is  likely  to  antagonize  those  with  whom 
he  works,  who  have  not  had  his  advantages.  Such  a  mistaken 
position  will  surely  cause  him  to  lose  much  of  his  influence  over 
the  men.  The  latter  usually  know  fairly  well  most  of  the  things 
concerning  the  work  which  the  superintendent  knows;  they  have 
had  these  things  taught  them  by  hard  knocks  and  generally  form 
shrewd  opinions  as  to  the  accuracy  of  the  superintendent's  knowl- 
edge. These  practical  men  in  the  field  are  very  likely  to  take  advan- 
tage of  any  weakness  of  the  superintendent  and  employ  it  to  their 
own  gain.  Conceit  is  a  dangerous  weakness  in  a  superintendent, 


8  BUILDING  SUPERINTENDENCE 

one  which  a  shrewd  contractor  often  makes  use  of  to  further  his 
own  interests. 

A  tactful  superintendent  insists,  in  a  friendly  but  dignified 
way,  upon  the  substantial  fulfillment  of  the  terms  of  the  contract 
as  they  actually  are  and  not  as  someone  thinks  they  are.  He  also 
demonstrates  that  his  presence  is  a  factor  that  aids  materially  in 
keeping  harmony,  speed,  and  continual  "push"  in  the  work. 

A  good  superintendent  is  not  petty,  but  looks  at  things  in  a 
broad-minded  way,  with  an  appreciation  of  what  is  essential  and 
what  is  nonessential.  It  is  difficult  to  put  down  on  paper  the  rules 
to  follow  or  the  methods  to  use  in  handling  men.  A  man  must 
learn  these  things  largely  by  experience.  One  can  get  along  best 
with  some  men  by  treating  them  kindly,  with  others  by  using  strict 
discipline.  Some  men  one  must  praise;  others  one  may  ridicule  and 
banter.  Some  men  need  encouragement,  while  others  are  too  cock- 
sure. Each  man  is  a  separate  problem  and  the  more  important  the 
man,  the  more  important  is  it  that  the  problem  should  be  solved 
correctly. 

Progress  Charts.  The  superintendent  also  soon  learns  that  the 
most  carefully  formed  plan  of  procedure,  mapped  out  at  the  begin- 
ning of  the  work  in  the  field,  can  seldom  be  followed  very  closely, 
for  the  reason  that  unforeseen  conditions  are  continually  arising  at 
the  site.  A  flood  may  carry  away  the  falsework  of  part  of  the 
bridge;  certain  cars  of  material  may  be  lost  on  the  way  to  the  site; 
the  owner,  when  he  sees  the  building  actually  begun,  may  change  his 
mind,  and  often  does,  as  to  certain  pre-arranged  requirements, 
upsetting  completely  the  carefully  prepared  theoretical  progress  chart. 

Generally,  it  is  the  unexpected  that  happens.  The  capable 
builder  successfully  solves  the  problems  from  day  to  day  as  they 
arise,  and  is  quick  to  act  and  to  take  advantage  of  opportunities 
for  the  sake  of  getting  the  entire  job  completed  on  or  before  a  stated 
time.  A  good  superintendent  is  a  help  to  the  builder  in  pointing 
out  opportunities  that  may  appear. 

Shifting  Character  of  Contractor's  Organization.  By  the  term 
"organization"  we  mean  the  combination  of  men,  machinery,  and 
equipment  brought  together  to  build  a  certain  structure,  and  this 
suggests  a  difficult  problem  in  construction  work.  It  usually  takes 
some  time  to  create  a  good  organization  and,  in  work  of  this  char- 


BUILDING  SUPERINTENDENCE  9 

acter,  no  sooner  has  a  good  one  been  established  than  the  job  is  com- 
pleted, after  which  there  is  no  longer  a  need  for  that  particular  organiza- 
tion. Men  have  different  capabilities  and  characteristics ;  some  work 
well  under  one  foreman  while  they  cannot  get  along  with  another;  a 
man  operates  one  machine  better  than  he  does  another,  and  so  on. 
Practically,  the  contractor  cannot  afford  to  keep  a  complete 
organization  standing  idle,  and  very  seldom  do  the  jobs  come 
along  in  such  sequence  as  to  enable  him  to  transfer  his  organization 
in  its  entirety  from  one  job  to  another.  He  therefore  loses  his 
men;  they  obtain  work  with  other  contractors;  and  the  next  time 
they  are  wanted,  they  cannot  be  obtained.  The  superintendent 
must  understand  this  element  of  practical  work  for  the  reason  that, 
although  the  contractor  may  be  capable  and  desirous  of  doing  the 
right  thing,  he  often  has  unknown  men  working  for  him,  who  do 
things  contrary  to  his  wishes  and  instructions.  The  superintendent 
must  be  able  to  detect  this  condition  and  have  it  corrected.  He 
may  find,  if  he  is  alert,  many  opportunities  to  save  the  contractor, 
as  well  as  the  owner,  much  annoyance  and  expense  caused  by  the 
non-efficient,  careless,  and  thoughtless  workman.  While  the  con- 
tractor is  bound  to  correct  the  mistakes  made  by  his  employes,  he 
will  be  grateful  for  timely  information  which  will  save  him  the 
expense  of  correction,  and  the  prompt  detection  of  errors  furthers 
the  advancement  of  the  job,  which  is,  of  course,  to  the  interest  of 
the  owner. 

HANDLING  BUSINESS  DETAILS 

Value  of  Business  Methods  with  Business  Men.  It  is  essential 
that  the  superintendent  should  have  knowledge  of  the  business 
methods  of  the  community  in  which  he  has  to  work.  Scientific 
training  generally  is  limited  to  a  study  of  the  laws  of  nature  and  their 
results.  Business  training  teaches  one  how  to  deal  with  men  and 
money  and  how  to  understand  the  laws  relating  thereto.  The 
owner  and  the  contractor  are  usually  thorough  business  men,  used 
to  business  methods,  and  they  cannot  work  in  harmony  with  those 
not  similarly  trained.  Engineers  and  superintendents,  to  convince 
the  business  man  of  the  importance  of  recommendations  and  decis- 
ions, must  talk  to  him  in  terms  which  he  can  readily  understand: 
that  is,  they  must  use  the  language  of  business. 


10  BUILDING  SUPERINTENDENCE 

Appointments.  One  of  the  fundamental  rules  of  business  is 
always  to  keep  an  appointment  and  to  require  others  to  do  likewise. 
A  strict  observance  of  this  rule  will  save  much  time  and  annoyance. 

Daily  Records.  The  superintendent  should  keep  a  daily 
record  of  the  work  under  his  supervision.  This  record  is  sometimes 
called  the  "log".  It  should  state  the  condition  of  the  weather  each 
day;  the  approximate  number  of  men  employed  on  the  different 
branches  of  the  work  and,  briefly,  what  they  are  doing;  the  time 
when  the  different  kinds  and  parts  of  the  work  were  commenced 
and  are  to  be  completed;  all  unusual  occurrences  coming  to  the  super- 
intendent's notice,  such  as  accidents,  mishaps,  delays,  together 
with  their  causes;  the  visits  to  the  work  of  prominent  people  con- 
nected with  the  operation.  It  must  be  accurate,  complete,  and 
clearly  stated,  so  that  anyone  taking  it  up  in  the  future,  after  these 
things  have  been  forgotten,  may  have  an  adequate  idea  of  what 
really  happened  at  the  time  the  log  was  made.  A  good  attitude  of 
mind  when  writing  up  the  log  is  to  assume  that  it  will  be  needed  in 
a  lawsuit  at  some  future  time,  the  decision  for  which  may  rest  upon 
the  record  contained  therein.  This  log,  however,  must  not  be  a 
"manufactured"  one;  that  is,  it  must  contain  a  statement  of  facts 
as  they  really  happened,  not  as  someone  might  wish  they  had 
happened. 

Contractor's  Payments.  The  engineer  and  the  superintendent 
must  know  in  a  general  way  the  values  of  the  different  branches  of 
the  work  coming  under  their  supervision;  it  is  by  means  of  their 
certificates  that  the  contractor  is  paid  by  the  owner,  and  these  pay- 
ments must  be  just,  neither  too  large  nor  too  small.  The  engineer 
and  the  superintendent  must  keep  an  accurate  account  of  all  pay- 
ments that  have  been  made  and  of  those  that  are  due  to  the  differ- 
ent parties  concerned. 

Superintendent's  Rulings.  In  making  rulings  or  in  rejecting 
work,  the  superintendent  should  take  the  matter  up  with  the  proper 
person  in  authority.  It  is  not  enough  to  give  orders  to  the  work- 
men; in  fact,  important  ones  should  never  be  given  directly  to  them. 
The  dealings  should  be  with  the  foreman,  the  contractor's  super- 
intendent, or  with  the  contractor  personally,  depending  upon  the 
importance  of  the  matter.  It  should  be  an  iron-clad  rule  that  all 
work  which  has  been  refused,  or  is  liable  to  rejection,  should  immedi- 


BUILDING  SUPERINTENDENCE  11 

ately  be  called  to  the  attention  of  the  contractor  himself  or  to  the 
man  next  highest  in  authority  who  can  be  reached  without  delay. 

Purchases.  The  engineer  should  know  enough  of  the  laws  of 
business  to  be  able  to  purchase  materials  and  other  things  cheaply 
and  without  being  imposed  upon. 

LEGAL  POINTS  ENCOUNTERED 

Importance  of  Legal  Knowledge.  The  engineer  and  the  super- 
intendent must  recognize  the  existence  of  a  rigid  framework  of  legal 
principles  upon  and  around  which  all  the  affairs  of  the  business 
world  are  carried  on.  To  refuse  to  acknowledge  this  or  to  act  in  a 
manner  contrary  to  these  principles  is  to  invite  disaster.  The 
engineer  finds  that  there  are  forces  at  work  in  the  business  world 
which  he  is  compelled  to  meet,  conquer,  and  use;  and  that  they  are 
almost  as  irresistible  as  the  forces  of  nature  with  which  he  deals 
when  designing  the  structure.  It  is  easy  to  imagine  what  would 
happen  to  his  work  if  the  engineer,  in  designing  it,  should  attempt 
to  defy  the  law  of  gravity ;  it  is  not  so  easy  to  see  what  would  happen 
to  it  if  the  laws  of  business  were  defied;  yet  the  result  is  sometimes 
just  as  disastrous. 

All  business  is  at  bottom  principally  a  matter  of  contracts; 
therefore  it  is  essential  that  the  engineer  and  the  superintendent 
should  know  something  of  the  law  relating  to  contracts,  and  also 
something  of  the  law  of  agency. 

In  olden  times,  personal  right  was  a  question  of  might.  As 
civilized  life  became  more  complex,  the  principal  method  of  enforc- 
ing right  was  changed  from  might  to  the  recognition  of  a  system  of 
rules  regarding  personal  and  property  rights.  These  rules  are  now 
known  as  "the  law".  As  the  construction  business  becomes  more 
complex,  it  is  found  that  careful  compliance  with  the  law  becomes 
more  and  more  important. 

Rudiments  of  Law.  There  are  certain  underlying  principles 
recognized  by  all  authorities  that  may  be  termed  the  rudiments  of 
the  law.  Other  principles  are  not  so  clearly  stated  or  understood 
and  therefore  authorities  differ  regarding  them.  We  emphasize  the 
necessity  and  the  importance  of  the  engineer  and  the  superintendent 
having  a  clear  understanding  of  the  rudiments  of  the  laws  of  the 
community  in  which  they  work.  The  handling  of  the  complex* 


12  BUILDING  SUPERINTENDENCE 

problems  and  questions  of  law  may  need  to  be  settled  by  an  attor- 
ney, but  the  more  the  parties  to  an  agreement  understand  and  follow 
the  rudiments  of  law,  the  less  will  they  need  the  services  of  the 
attorney  and  incur  the  consequent  delay  and  expense. 

Field  of  Private  Law.  The  engineer  and  the  superintendent 
come  in  contact  largely  with  that  branch  of  the  law  known  as  private 
law  or  the  law  of  contracts  and  the  law  of  torts.  Contracts  are 
agreements  of  any  nature.  Torts  are  private  wrongs  not  covered 
by  contracts.  Injury  inflicted  upon  the  property  or  body  of  one 
person  by  another,  which  injury  is  not  a  breach  of  contract,  is  a  tort. 
Torts  and  crimes  often  overlap.  Contract  rights  are  obtained  only 
by  agreement.  A  tort,  in  distinction,  has  to  do  with  one's  nat- 
ural rights,  it  is  the  violation  of  such  rights,  independent  of  contract. 

An  engineer  or  a  superintendent  will  probably  learn  early 
in  his  career,  sometimes  to  his  discomfiture,  that  all  agreements, 
or  that  certain  provisions  of  a  contract,  even  though  they  are  a 
part  of  a  written  and  signed  document,  may  have  no  force  in  the 
courts,  if  either  party  should  choose  not  to  abide  by  the  terms  of 
the  so-called  agreement  or  contract.  The  reason  for  this  is  that 
such  terms  are  not  in  accordance  with  the  law  of  the  community 
and  will  not  be  enforced  by  the  courts. 

Parties  may  enter  into  any  kind  of  agreement  they  choose, 
if  the  provisions  and  conditions  are  legal.  There  are,  however, 
what  is  known  in  law  as  "impossible  contracts". 

Contracts.  A  contract  has  been  defined  as  "an  agreement 
between  two  or  more  competent  parties,  enforcible  in  a  court  of 
law,  and  based  upon  a  sufficient  consideration  to  do  or  not  to  do 
a  particular  thing."  The  essentials  of  a  contract  are  briefly:  first, 
parties  competent  at  law  to  make  an  agreement;  second,  something 
to  agree  upon;  and  third,  a  sufficient  consideration  for  the  bargain. 

Other  definitions  of  a  contract  have  been  stated  as  follows: 

"A  transaction  in  which  each  party  comes  under  an  obligation 
to  the  other  and  each  reciprocally  acquires  a  right  to  what  is  prom- 
ised by  the  other." 

"A  convention  by  which  one  or  more  persons  obligate  them- 
selves to  one  or  more  other  persons,  to  give  or  to  do,  or  not  to  do 
something." 

Consideration.    One   of  the   important  things  required  in  a 


BUILDING  SUPERINTENDENCE  13 

contract  is  the  consideration.  If  there  is  none  named,  or  if  it 
can  be  shown  to  the  satisfaction  of  the  court  that  the  consideration 
named  is  not  a  proper  one,  the  contract  is  not  valid.  It  must  be 
understood  that  consideration  means  compensation.  There  is, 
of  course,  the  money  consideration  which  is  the  most  common  one, 
but  considerations  at  law  are  not  limited  to  money.  The  theory 
of  the  law  is  that  both  sides  of  the  contract  shall,  in  the  opinion 
of  the  contracting  parties,  be  equivalent  or  equal  in  value. 

Competency  of  Person  Making  Contract.  Another  thing  required 
in  a  contract  is  that  the  person  or  persons  making  the  agreement 
be  competent  at  law,  or  be  legally  qualified  to  make  it.  In  this 
connection  the  engineer  most  often  takes  care  to  see  that  persons 
binding  or  attempting  to  bind  a  corporation  are  authorized  to  do 
so.  Generally,  it  will  be  found  that  only  certain  of  the  higher 
officials  of  a  corporation,  such  as  a  president  or  a  vice-president, 
has  any  proper  or  original  authority  to  sign  contracts  for  the  cor- 
poration. The  corporation  does,  however,  have  agents  in  varying 
capacities  who  can  with  authority  bind  it  in  a  limited  way.  Another 
thing  that  must  be  looked  out  for,  is  to  see  that  the  signature 
attached  to  an  agreement  or  other  document,  such  as  a  receipt 
of  payment,  is  complete.  The  name  of  the  principal,  that  is,  the 
corporation,  person,  partnership,  or  organization,  for  which  the 
person  may  be  signing,  must  be  written  first.  Under  this  should 
be  written  the  name  of  the  person  signing,  and  beneath  this  his 
title  or  office,  such  as  agent,  cashier,  president,  or  whatever  it  may 
be.  If  a  man  should  sign  simply  his  own  name  followed  by  his 
title  or  office,  he  would  not  bind  his  principal  but  only  himself 
personally.  Again,  the  mere  name  of  the  corporation,  partnership, 
or  organization  is  not  sufficient;  it  should  be  followed  by  the  signa- 
ture of  an  authorized  officer  or  agent. 

Relations  of  Partnerships  and  Corporations  to  Contract.  Part- 
nerships may  be  defined  as  the  combining  of  two  or  more  persons 
by  agreement  in  an  enterprise  for  common  profit.  The  law  per- 
taining to  partnerships  is  different  from  that  pertaining  to  cor- 
porations. A  partnership  may  be  created  by  mutual  consent  of 
the  partners  for  the  transaction  of  any  kind  of  business  which  an 
individual  has  the  right  to  transact,  the  only  limitation  being  that 
the  enterprise  must  be  for  a  lawful  purpose.  In  a  partnership 


14  BUILDING  SUPERINTENDENCE 

each  partner  has  the  right  to  act  as  principal  for  the  others,  and 
each  individual  partner  is  liable  for  the  acts  of  the  other  partners. 
Each  may  bind  the  other  by  contract.  However,  if  the  partnership 
has  adopted  a  firm  name,  a  contract  made  in  the  name  of  one  of 
the  individual  members  does  not  bind  the  partnership.  It  cannot 
be  bound  by  any  name  other  than  its'  own. 

A  corporation  must  have  permission  from  the  government 
to  do  business.  It  cannot  be  formed  for  every  purpose.  An  indi- 
vidual or  a  partnership  can  engage  in  certain  lines  of  business  which 
are  denied  to  a  corporation.  A  partnership  no  longer  exists  when 
one  of  its  members  dies  or  when  a  change  in  membership  is  made, 
while  a  corporation  is  not  affected  by  the  death  of  some  of  its  mem- 
bers nor  by  any  change  of  members,  but  has  a  continuous  existence 
during  the  term  for  which  it  is  created?  As  stated  before,  each 
partner  is  the  recognized  and  authorized  agent  of  the  partnership, 
while  in  a  corporation  only  those  appointed  in  a  manner  prescribed 
by  law  and  by  the  rules  of  the  organization,  can  act  as  agents. 

Subject  Matter  of  Contracts.  The  subject  matter  of  a  contract 
must  be  a  lawful  one;  any  agreement  to  do  an  unlawful  thing  would 
make  the  contract  null  and  void. 

To  know  whether  or  not  the  subject  matter  or  the  statements 
in  the  contract  are  legal — in  other  words,  whether  or  not  the  terms 
of  the  contract  can  be  enforced  in  the  courts — often  requires  a 
considerable  knowledge  of  legal  relationships  and  need  not  be  dis- 
cussed here  except  to  mention  briefly  some  of  the  more  important 
things  which  are  known  to  be  illegal. 

A  contract  cannot  contain  agreements  which  violate  some 
state  or  federal  statute,  or  which  are  contrary  to  the  rules  of  what 
is  known  as  common  law,  or  which  are  forbidden  by  public  policy. 
Statutes  and  the  rules  of  common  law  are  well  defined,  but  the 
doctrines  of  public  policy  are  somewhat  elastic.  It  has  been  said: 
"Whenever  any  contract  conflicts  with  the  morals  of  the  times 
and  contravenes  any  of  the  established  interests  of  society,  it  is 
void  as  against  public  policy".  A  United  States  Court  has  said, 
"Viewed  from  the  standpoint  of  morals,  square  dealing,  and  com- 
mercial integrity,"  such  and  such  a  thing  cannot  be  approved. 

A  few  instances  of  general  practice  in  the  courts  will  aid  one 
to  grasp  the  general  trend  of  the  courts'  interpretation  of  this  matter 


BUILDING  SUPERINTENDENCE  15 

as  related  to  construction  contracts.  The  courts  have  held  as  illegal 
contracts  which  were  plainly  intended  to  obstruct  justice,  to  encourage 
litigation,  to  restrain  freedom  of  trade,  to  give  excessive  or  highly 
arbitrary  powers  to  an  architect  or  an  engineer,  to  bargain  away  the 
contractor's  legal  rights,  or  to  tend  to  wrest  from  the  courts  their 
proper  jurisdiction.  An  agreement  that  deprives  the  parties  of 
their  legal  right  to  have  their  disputes  and  grievances  heard  by  a 
properly  conducted  tribunal,  such  as  a  court  of  law,  is  held  to  be 
illegal,  but  an  agreement  which  has  arbitration  clauses  in  it  is  held 
to  be  legal;  in  the  latter  case,  if  either  party  does  not  like  the  decision 
of  the  arbitrators,  there  are  usually  ways  of  taking  the  matter 
into  the  courts.  Clauses  that  stipulate  that  the  engineer  or  the 
architect  shall  have  the  sole  power  to  fix  the  price  of  work  that 
may  be  added,  omitted,  or  altered  from  the  contract  work  are 
generally  held  valid  at  law,  and  his  decision  will,  in  the  absence 
of  fraud  or  collusion,  be  enforced  by  the  courts.  The  final  word 
in  case  of  dispute  over  the  compensation  can  be  given  only  by  the 
courts.  In  some  States  it  is  held  that  clauses  are  void  at  law  which 
provide  that  the  architect  or  the  engineer  shall  be  the  sole  judge 
in  deciding  all  matters  in  the  contract,  or  that  he  shall  be  an  arbi- 
trator between  owner  and  contractor. 

Mutual  Understanding.  The  agreement  must  be  a  mutual 
understanding  between  the  parties.  Usually  it  is  held  at  law  that, 
when  a  party  signs  his  name  to  a  written  agreement,  he  admits 
the  understanding  of  all  the  clauses,  thereby  making  it  a  mutual 
one.  It  is  essential,  however,  that  there  be  a  meeting  of  the  minds 
of  the  contracting  parties,  for  if  there  is  a  mutual  mistake  on  their 
part,  their  minds  do  not  meet  and  there  is  no  contract.  A  mistake 
on  the  part  of  one  of  the  parties  only  generally  does  not  make  the 
contract  void. 

Performance  Prevented.  If  either  party  to  a  contract  does  or 
does  not  do  something,  and  such  act  or  failure  to  act  prevents  the 
other  party  from  performing  his  agreements,  the  latter  is  excused 
from  the  performance  of  them. 

Offers  to  Pay.  An  unconditional  offer  to  pay  in  legal  money, 
so  as  to  stop  interest  and  costs,  is  equivalent  in  law  to  payment. 
The  law  also  declares  what  constitutes  legal  money.  Private 
checks,  silver  certificates,  and  bank  notes  are  not  legal  tender. 


16  BUILDING  SUPERINTENDENCE 

Breach  of  Contract.  A  breach  of  contract  is  the  failure  or 
refusal  of  one  of  the  parties  to  a  contract  to  carry  out  his  part  of 
the  agreement.  If  one  party  notifies  the  other  party  that  he  will 
refuse  to  carry  out  the  contract,  the  other  party  may  stop  the 
performance  of  his  part  of  it,  but  he  is  entitled  to  and  supposed 
to  be  able  to  collect  the  cost  to  him  of  work  performed,  and  in  some 
cases  the  profit  that  would  be  his  if  the  entire  contract  had  been  com- 
pleted. Profit,  however,  is  not  often  a  tangible  thing,  and  its 
existence  is  often  hard  to  prove  in  the  courts.  If  one  party  refuses 
to  perform  his  part  of  the  contract,  the  other  party  cannot  compel 
him  to  do  so.  The  second  party  is,  however,  entitled  to  damages 
which  are  usually  actual  and  rarely  punitive,  and  can  collect  them. 

One  party  to  a  contract  cannot  claim  damages  for  breach  of 
contract  if  the  other  party  refuses  or  neglects  to  do  some  unim- 
portant thing,  unless  the  thing  is  clearly  stated  in  the  contract 
and  is  reasonable,  because  the  law  does  not  recognize  trivial  things. 
It  recognizes  substantial  performance  as  actual. 

Failure  to  Complete  Contract  on  Time.  In  all  construction 
contracts  the  time  of  completion  should  be  agreed  upon  and  clearly 
stated.  It  is  usual  also  to  include  in  the  contract,  at  the  time  of 
making  it,  what  the  amount  of  the  damages  shall  be  if  the  work 
is  not  completed  at  the  time  mentioned.  These  damages  must 
be  named  in  the  contract  as  "liquidated  damages"  and  must  be 
of  a  reasonable  amount  in  order  to  have  the  courts  enforce  their 
collection. 

Agency.  Few  business  deals  are  completed  or  can  be  com- 
pleted solely  and  personally  by  the  parties  to  a  contract;  therefore 
the  principals  to  a  contract  must  have  representatives  or  agents 
to  help  them.  A  corporation  has  no  identity  of  a  personal  nature 
and  of  necessity  performs  all  its  acts  through  its  officers  and  other 
agents.  There  are  recognized  rules  and  laws  in  all  communities 
which  govern  the  relationship  existing  between  principals  and 
their  representatives,  and  which  are  known  as  the  "laws  of  agency". 

Appointment  of  Agents.  Any  person,  corporation,  or  party, 
who  has  the  legal  right  to  enter  into  a  contract,  can  appoint  agents 
to  act  instead.  Almost  any  one,  except  a  very  young  child  or  a 
person  who  may  have  interests  opposed  to  those  of  the  principal, 
may  act  as  an  agent.  The  agent  may  be  appointed  in  several 


BUILDING  SUPERINTENDENCE  17 

ways,  in  writing  or  orally.  Any  word  or  act  of  the  principal  which 
can  be  interpreted  as  representing  the  will  of  the  principal,  is  suffi- 
cient. If  one  person  asks  another  if  he  shall  do  something  for  him 
and  the  other  responds  with  a  nod  of  his  head,  this  is  held  to  be  enough 
to  make  the  first  person  an  agent  of  the  second  to  perform  the  par- 
ticular thing  mentioned.  If  a  person  does  something  unauthorized 
by  another  and  the  latter  ratifies  the  act,  then  the  first  person 
becomes  the  agent  of  the  second,  at  least  in  respect  to  that  act. 

Agent's  Authority  and  Responsibility.  If  one  man  knows  that 
a  second  is  acting  for  him  and  permits  the  second  to  do  things  as 
his  agent,  the  first  one  is  liable  for  the  acts  of  the  agent  just  as  if 
he  had  performed  the  acts  himself.  When  it  comes  to  the  knowledge 
of  a  person  that  another  is  assuming  to  act  as  his  agent,  such  person 
must  elect  without  delay  either  to  repudiate  the  acts  of  the  alleged 
agent  or  else  accept  the  responsibility  for  them. 

A  mere  assertion  on  the  part  of  a  person  that  he  has  the  author- 
ity necessary  to  act  as  the  agent  for  another  does  not  make  him 
the  agent,  because  only  the  principal's  consent  can  make  him  so. 

An  agent  cannot  do  for  his  principal  anything  which  the  prin- 
cipal cannot  lawfully  do  for  himself.  While  it  is  true  that  a  third 
person  dealing  with  an  agent  is  required  to  ascertain  at  his  peril 
whether  or  not  the  agent  has  actual  authority  to  act  for  his  principal, 
the  third  person  has  the  right  to  assume  that  the  agent  has  the 
authority  to  perform  the  duties  which  are  customarily  done  by 
persons  acting  in  the  same  or  similar  capacity,  unless  the  principal 
should  expressly  call  the  attention  of  the  third  party  to  the  contrary. 
For  example,  the  duties  of  a  superintendent  are  ordinarily  under- 
stood to  give  him  the  power  to  do  certain  things  for  his  employer 
and  unless  the  employer  openly  states  to  the  contrary  (so  as  not 
to  deceive  the  third  person),  then  the  third  person  has  the  right 
to  assume  that  the  particular  superintendent  with  whom  he  is 
dealing  has  all  the  authority  which  it  is  customary  for  all  superin- 
tendents to  have. 

When  a  third  person,  before  dealing  with  the  agent,  ascertains 
that  the  agent  has  received  authority  of  a  certain  character  from 
the  principal,  then  the  third  party  may  rely  on  the  customary  or 
apparent  powers  conferred  and  need  not  be  apprehensive  of  unex- 
pected or  secret  limitations  upon  such  powers. 


IS  BUILDING  SUPERINTENDENCE 

An  agent  cannot  bind  his  principal  beyond  the  limitations 
of  authority  conferred  upon  him  by  the  principal,  unless  the  limita- 
tions are  of  such  a  nature  as  to  deceive  a  third  party. 

An  agent  can  be  held  personally  responsible  at  law  for  ail  the 
wrongful  acts  which  he  may  commit;  it  is  no  excuse  that  he  was 
acting  as  the  agent  for  someone  else. 

An  agent  cannot,  ordinarily,  without  the  expressed  consent 
of  his  principal,  transfer  to  another  his  authority  to  act.  However, 
where  mere  mechanical  or  clerical  work  is  to  be  done,  the  agent 
can  employ  others  to  help  him. 

Liability  Law.  It  is  well  that  a  superintendent  know  something 
of  the  laws  governing  liability  for  injury  received  on  the  work. 
It  has  been  said  that  a  principal,  or  master,  is  obliged  to  furnish 
his  agent  or  servant  with  a  reasonably  safe  place  in  which  to  work, 
and  with  reasonably  safe  tools  and  instruments.  If  the  principal 
fails  to  do  these  things  and  the  servant  is  injured  through  no  neg- 
ligence or  carelessness  on  his  part,  what  is  known  at  law  as  a  tort 
has  happened  and  the  principal  is  liable  to  the  servant  in  damages 
for  any  injuries.  The  agent  or  servant  must,  however,  assume  the 
risks  which  naturally  belong  to  the  work  in  which  he  is  engaged. 
If  a  workman  carelessly  steps  off  a  scaffold  he  cannot  collect  damages 
from  the  contractor,  but  if  the  scaffold  should  be  constructed  in 
such  a  manner  as  to  be  unsafe  and,  falling,  should  injure  the  workman, 
then  the  latter  can  collect  damages. 

In  most  localities  there  are  laws,  such  as  factory  laws,  workmen's 
compensation  laws,  and  the  like,  which  govern  what  a  contractor 
shall  or  shall  not  do  toward  insuring  the  safety  of  his  men  and  of 
the  public.  The  superintendent  should  make  it  his  business  to 
study  these  laws  and  to  see  that  they  are  substantially  obeyed. 

Building  Laws.  Most  communities  also  have  regulations  called 
building  laws  which  govern  the  erection  of  all  kinds  of  structures. 
Obviously  the  superintendent  should  be  familiar  with  these  laws.  He 
should  obtain  copies  from  local  authorities  and  study  them  carefully. 

Lien  Laws.  These  laws  vary  in  the  different  States.  They 
provide  that  in  case  a  workman  employed  on  the  job,  or  anyone 
furnishing  materials  used  in  it,  is  not  paid  for  his  work  or  for  the 
materials,  he  shall  have  the  right  by  law  to  place  a  lien  on  the  prop- 
erty, provided  this  is  done  in  the  prescribed  way  and  within  a  given 


BUILDING  SUPERINTENDENCE  19 

time  after  the  money  is  due.  If  the  claim  covered  by  the  lien  is 
proved  to  be  correct,  then  the  owner  of  the  property  will  be  com- 
pelled to  pay  the  workman  or  material  man  the  amount  of  the  lien, 
notwithstanding  the  fact  that  he  has  already  paid  the  contractor 
for  this  same  work  or  materials. 

It  is  important,  therefore,  that  the  superintendent  study 
the  lien  laws  of  the  State  in  which  he  works,  and  satisfy  himself 
before  issuing  certificates  for  payment  that  the  owner  is  protected 
against  liens  of  all  sorts. 

Application  of  the  Law.  Complex  Questions.  The  foregoing 
statements  are  only  a  few  of  the  rudiments  of  the  law.  In  applying 
them  to  the  work,  the  superintendent  should  use  common  sense, 
always  referring  the  more  complicated  points  of  law  to  the  attorneys. 
The  good  sense  of  the  engineer  or  superintendent  will  often  be 
shown  by  referring  a  really  doubtful  question  of  law  to  an  attorney 
instead  of  attempting  to  pass  upon  it  himself.  A  certain  amount 
of  legal  knowledge  is  necessary  that  the  superintendent  may  know 
the  proper  relationship  of  things  and  the  rights  of  all  parties  con- 
cerned; also  that  he  may  know  what  the  terms  of  a  contract  and 
specifications  really  mean,  in  other  words,  that  he  may  interpret 
them  correctly.  The  use  of  common  sense  in  these  matters  usually 
does  more  for  the  job  than  does  the  technical  enforcement  of  laws. 
Substantial  justice  to  all  parties  should  be  the  object  sought. 

What  the  Law  Expects  of  Superintendents.  The  law  requires 
that  an  engineer,  architect,  or  superintendent,  who  agrees  to  direct 
the  work,  shall  be  on  the  job  a  sufficient  part  of  the  time  to  enable 
him  to  give  it  prompt  and  adequate  inspection.  This  means  that 
he  must,  of  course,  know  defective  work  when  he  sees  it  and  that 
he  will  discover  and  examine  it  before  it  is  hidden.  When  defective 
work  is  discovered  or  in  any  way  called  to  his  attention,  the  super- 
intendent must  without  delay  take  action  to  effect  its  correction. 
If  he  is  to  reject  any  work  he  must  do  so  promptly,  for  he  has  no 
right  under  any  circumstances  to  conceal  his  discovery  and  then 
reject  the  work  after  much  time  has  elapsed.  Sometimes,  however, 
the  contractor  or  his  men  intentionally  conceal  defective  work  in 
an  attempt  to  deceive.  The  superintendent  must  try  to  make 
such  a  contractor  or  workman  see  that  it  is  not  to  his  own  interest 
to  do  that  kind  of  work. 


20  BUILDING  SUPERINTENDENCE 

DUTIES  REGARDING  DRAWINGS 

Draftsmanship  and  Superintendence  Compared.  Both  the 
draftsman  and  the  superintendent  must  have  a  technical  knowledge 
of  the  work.  The  draftsman's  work  is  largely  accomplished  by 
knowing  how  to  make  a  good  drawing;  that  is,  he  records  his  ideas 
and  those  of  others  in  a  concise,  clear,  and  intelligent  manner  by 
making  a  series  of  lines  and  letters  on  paper.  The  superintendent, 
however,  performs  his  task,  for  the  most  part,  by  handling  the  men. 
His  conceptions  and  those  of  others  are  recorded  in  lasting  steel 
or  similar  materials  and  not  merely  on  paper.  The  draftsman 
personally  makes  the  lines  on  the  paper.  The  superintendent  must 
compel  others  to  make  the  record.  It  cannot  be  emphasized  too 
strongly  that  it  is  just  as  important  for  the  superintendent  to  know 
how  to  deal  with  men  as  it  is  for  the  draftsman  to  know  how  to  draw. 

Knowledge  of  Drawings  Important.  The  more  a  superintendent 
knows  about  drawings  and  how  they  are  made,  the  better.  It  is 
a  duty  for  him  to  interpret  the  meanings  of  the  different  drawings, 
specifications,  and  other  contract  papers.  In  fact,  he  should  know 
better  than  anyone  on  the  job  what  the  contract  provisions  are 
and  this  before  the  work  is  executed  in  the  structure.  If  anyone 
has  actually  had  a  hand  in  making  anything,  the  better  will  he  be 
able  to  understand  the  process  of  its  manufacture.  It,  therefore,  is 
needless  to  say  that  the  more  experience  the  superintendent  has 
had  in  the  drafting-room,  the  better  grounded  he  is  in  the  abbrevia- 
tions and  conventional  signs  that  are  standard  practice  in  the  making 
of  drawings,  and,  hence  the  more  practical  is  his  knowledge  of  the 
real  intent  of  the  drawings. 

One  who  has  perfected  himself  in  the  reading  of  drawings 
finds  in  the  rush  of  work  and  in  the  noise  and  confusion,  that  this 
helps  him  to  avoid  mistakes,  and  gives  him  more  time  to  devote 
to  watching  the  progress  of  the  work. 

While  it  is  possible  for  one  who  has  never  had  experience  in 
the  actual  making  of  drawings  to  perform  successfully  the  duties 
of  a  superintendent,  he  is  able  to  perform  his  duties  better  and  more 
easily  if  he  has  had  such  experience. 

Study  of  Drawings.  It  should  be  the  duty  of  the  superin- 
tendent, when  he  first  gets  the  contract  drawings  and  specifications, 
to  read,  study,  and  examine  them  thoroughly  until  he  knows  the 


BUILDING  SUPERINTENDENCE  21 

job  from  bottom  to  top.  He  should  especially  note  unusual  require- 
ments, and  those  that  are  peculiar  to  this  particular  piece  of  work. 
He  must  not,  however,  depend  entirely  upon  this  first  study;  from 
time  to  time  he  must  refresh  his  memory,  especially  of  particular 
parts  of  the  structure  as  they  are  about  to  be  erected,  so  that  he 
may  have  a  correct  and  positive  knowledge  of  the  work  as  it  is 
done.  To  illustrate:  We  are  assigned  to  a  twenty-story  office 
building.  Supplied  with  the  drawings  and  specifications,  we  begin 
at  once  to  study  and  ponder  over  them,  and  to  ask  our  superiors 
about  certain  points  that  may  not  be  quite  clear,  until  we  have  an 
excellent  idea  as  to  what  the  contract  includes.  The  actual  work 
on  the  structure  begins.  While  the  foundation  work  is  going  on, 
it  is  not  necessary  for  us  to  give  the  roof  drawings  any  special  atten- 
tion; but  a  short  time  before  the  roof  is  reached,  we  should  devote 
some  time  to  studying  again  the  drawings  for  this  part  of  the  work. 

A  man  can  undoubtedly  do  more  work  and  better  work  by 
using  some  system  and  not  by  trying  to  retain  too  much  in  his 
mind  at  one  time.  The  less  the  brain  is  occupied  with  the  non- 
essential  things,  the  more  it  can  occupy  itself  with  the  essential. 

Accuracy  of  Drawings.  It  is  presumed,  when  the  drawings 
and  specifications  are  turned  over  to  the  job,  that  they  are  complete 
and  accurate,  but  the  superintendent  should  not  take  this  too  much 
for  granted.  He  should  be  on  the  lookout  for  errors  and  omissions 
and  correct  them  before  they  affect  the  progress  of  the  work. 

Supplying  Workmen  with  Drawings.  The  superintendent  must 
see  that  the  different  workmen  are  supplied  with  a  sufficient  number 
of  copies  of  the  drawings.  A  squad  of  men  putting  steel  together 
on  the  twentieth  story  are  very  likely  to  go  wrong  in  the  work  if 
the  erection  drawings  are  kept  in  the  office  on  the  first  floor.  The 
drawings  must  be  located  so  that  the  workmen  actually  doing  the 
work  can  refer  to  them  continually  and  easily. 

Handling  Drawings.  The  particular  drawing  needed  by  the 
men  may  be  tacked  to  a  light  drawing  board  which  can  easily  be 
taken  from  place  to  place.  This  method  preserves  the  drawings, 
saves  the  foreman  time  in  handling  it,  allows  the  checking  of  the 
different  pieces  as  the  work  progresses,  and  prevents  the  drawing 
from  being  blown  away — an  important  consideration  when  the 
work  is  on  a  high  structure. 


22  BUILDING  SUPERINTENDENCE 

Classes  of  Drawings.  Two  classes  of  drawings  are  usually 
made  and  supplied  for  the  work  in  the  field,  namely,  general  and 
detailed  drawings. 

General  Drawings.  The  general  drawings  are  called  by  different 
names,  such  as  assembly,  framing,  or  setting  diagrams.  Each 
drawing  is  supposed  to  show  as  much  of  the  structure  as  it  can 
clearly,  with  the  different  parts  assembled  in  the  same  relation 
to  one  another  that  they  will  bear  in  the  structure.  These  drawings 
are  usually  on  a  comparatively  small  scale  and  constitute  the 
plans,  elevations,  and  sections  of  the  building.  They  are  in 
the  nature  of  diagrams,  which  usually  do  not  attempt  to  show 
the  details  of  the  connections  of  the  different  members,  but 
rather  to  indicate  the  proper  relationship  of  the  members.  The 
members  are  usually  shown  by  a  single  line  designated  by  some 
distinctive  mark. 

Marking  System  Necessary.  It  is  very  important  that  each 
piece  that  goes  into  the  structure  should  be  indicated  in  some  simple 
manner  on  these  general  drawings  by  a  mark  that  is  different  from 
those  on  all  the  other  pieces. 

There  are  several  good  systems  of  marking.  An  example  of 
one  sometimes  used  is  as  follows:  Each  piece  of  steel  that  belongs 
on  a  certain  floor  has  a  mark,  the  first  character  of  which  is  a  figure 
corresponding  to  the  number  of  that  particular  floor;  after  this 
figure  is  a  letter  designating  whether  the  piece  is  a  beam,  a  girder, 
a  separator,  etc.;  then  follow  other  figures  in  numerical  order  given 
in  some  systematic  way  up  and  down  or  across  the  drawing;  each 
piece  that  goes  into  a  structure  is  given,  at  the  shop  where  it  is 
fabricated,  the  same  mark  as  the  one  shown  on  these  general  draw- 
ings or  setting  diagrams.  By  this  system,  when  a  piece  of  steel 
is  received  at  the  building,  marked  "2B30",  the  erection  gang 
knows  immediately  that  this  piece  is  beam  30  for  the  second  floor; 
if  marked  "5G18",  it  is  understood  that  it  is  girder  18  for  the  fifth 
floor,  and  so  on.  The  last  numbers  of  the  marks  having  been  placed 
on  the  drawing  in  some  regular  order,  the  squad  boss,  or  person 
interested,  can  turn  almost  directly  to  the  place  on  the  drawing 
which  shows  where  the  piece  is  to  go. 

It  is  understood  that  the  fabricator  usually  sends  the  work 
through  his  shop  in  such  rotation  as  best  suits  his  shop  system, 


BUILDING  SUPERINTENDENCE  23 

and  often  ships  together  pieces  belonging  to  radically  different  parts 
of  the  structure.  For  instance,  if  there  should  happen  to  be  beams 
of  the  same  size  and  of  exactly  the  same  detail  located  on  all  the 
floors  from  the  basement  to  the  roof,  one  can  readily  see  that  it 
would  be  cheaper  to  run  them  all  through  together,  and  to  ship 
them  at  once  so  as  to  save  the  space  in  the  shop. 

Unless  the  erector  has  used  some  forethought  and  provided 
in  the  contract  for  the  sequence  in  which  the  steel  is  to  come  to 
the  job,  he  is  likely  to  find  that  the  fabricator  cares  very  little  how 
much  sorting  is  required  at  the  site.  It  is  for  this  reason  and  for 
others  of  equal  importance  that  some  good  and  intelligent  system 
of  marking  should  be  devised  and  used  on  the  work;  otherwise  there 
is  bound  to  be  a  great  loss  of  time,  which  is  equivalent  to  a  loss  of 
money. 

Bridgemen  are  highly  paid,  and  one  can  readily  see  the  loss 
incurred,  if,  while  workmen  stand  around  idle,  the  boss  of  the  gang 
has  to  make  long  search  through  a  number  of  large-sized  drawings, 
in  order  to  tell  where  each  little  piece  belongs. 

Shop  Detail  Drawings.  Shop  details  are  drawings  of  each 
individual  piece  on  a  scale  large  enough  to  show  without  confusion 
all  the  information  required  to  fabricate  and  erect  this  particular 
piece.  These  details  give  the  men  in  the  shop  the  exact  knowledge 
needed  to  lay  out,  cut,  punch,  assemble,  and  rivet  the  piece  shown, 
as  well  as  to  give  it  the  proper  erection  mark.  It  is  just  as  important 
that  the  men  erecting  the  structure  shall  have  a  sufficient  number 
of  copies  of  the  shop  details  on  the  erection  work  as  it  is  for  them 
to  have  the  general  drawings. 

Conflict  in  Requirements.  Sometimes  there  is  a  conflict 
between  the  requirements  as  stated  on  the  drawings  and  specifica- 
tions, and  the  formal  contract.  The  contract  is  usually  considered 
the  most  important  paper  because  it  is  usually  more  carefully 
drawn  than  the  others;  the  specifications  are  next  in  order,  inasmuch 
as  the  person  who  writes  them  has  more  authority  than  the  drafts- 
man; the  drawings  are  of  least  weight.  It  is,  therefore,  customary 
to  rule  that  the  specifications  have  precedence  over  the  drawings. 
It  is  well,  however,  to  know  that  the  courts  do  not  always  uphold 
this  practice,  because  they  make  the  real  intent  of  the  agreement,  no 
matter  how  it  is  shown,  the  primary  consideration. 


24  BUILDING  SUPERINTENDENCE 

INSPECTION  OF  MATERIAL  AND  ERECTION 
OF  STEEL  WORK 

Classes  of  Inspections.  The  three  kinds  of  inspection,  so 
called,  that  are  given  to  the  materials  and  workmanship  of  a  steel 
structure  are  the  "mill",  the  "shop",  and  the  "erection". 

It  is  not  customary  for  the  same  man  to  make  all  of  the  inspec- 
tions, one  reason  being  that  each  inspection  requires  a  somewhat 
different  sort  of  knowledge.  Another  reason  is  that  by  having 
one  man  inspect  a  number  of  jobs  at  the  mill,  a  second  man  inspect 
a  number  at  the  shop,  and  a  third  man  inspect  the  erection,  a  great 
saving  of  time  and  money  is  effected,  particularly  in  the  matter 
of  transportation. 

There  are  now  large  corporations,  as  well  as  smaller  concerns, 
who  make  inspection  of  all  kinds  their  sole  business.  These  con- 
cerns are  able  to  do  this  at  a  reasonable  price  because  they  place 
men  in  the  different  large  mills  and  shops  and  keep  them  there 
all  the  time.  These  men  become  very  familiar  with  the  workings 
of  the  particular  institution  to  which  they  are  assigned;  consequently 
they  know  where  to  station  themselves  to  do  the  most  efficient 
work.  They  can  watch  a  number  of  jobs  just  as  easily  as  they 
can  watch  one. 

MILL  INSPECTION 

Knowledge  Necessary  for  Mill  Inspector.  The  mill  inspector 
should  have  a  knowledge  of  metallurgy,  particularly  in  its  applica- 
tion to  iron;  he  should  also  have  a  knowledge  of  chemistry  and 
physics,  inasmuch  as  his  work  deals  largely  with  the  composition 
and  strength  of  materials.  The  materials  entering  into  the  work 
commonly  termed  steel  structures,  are  cast  iron,  wrought  iron,  and 
steel.  Each  material  has  several  grades.  All  differ  from  one 
another,  chiefly  in  the  amount  of  carbon  they  contain,  but  also  in 
the  quantities  of  other  substances  generally  considered  impurities, 
such  as  phosphorus,  sulphur,  manganese,  and  silicon.  Wrought 
iron  comes  the  nearest  to  being  pure  iron;  it  sometimes  contains 
no  carbon,  and  seldom  over  one-fourth  of  one  per  cent.  Cast 
iron  contains  the  most  carbon,  sometimes  as  much  as  five  per  cent; 
while  steel  has  a  chemical  composition  intermediate  between  wrought 
iron  and  cast  iron. 


BUILDING  SUPERINTENDENCE  25 

Cast  Iron.  There  are  two  principal  kinds  of  cast  iron — the 
gray  and  the  white.  These  may  be  produced  from  the  same  ore 
by  varying  the  conditions  of  temperature,  gray  iron  by  slow  cooling, 
and  white  iron  by  rapid  cooling.  Gray  iron  should  be  used  where 
strength  is  needed.  It  is  soft  and  tough,  melts  at  a  lower  heat  than 
the  white;  remains  fluid  a  long  time;  can  be  planed,  turned,  and 
drilled;  is  red  when  molten;  and  makes  good  castings.  The  fracture 
is  granular,  of  a  gray  color,  and  has  a  metallic  luster.  White 
iron  should  be  used  where  hardness  is  required.  It  is  hard  and 
brittle;  is  not  easily  melted;  thickens  rapidly;  cannot  be  worked; 
and  is  white  when  fluid.  The  fracture  is  white  in  color,  crystalline, 
with  a  vitreous  luster. 

Defects  in  Castings.  The  principal  defects  in  castings  are 
blowholes;  honeycomb  caused  by  confined-air  cavities;  flaws  caused 
by  the  collection  of  foundry  dirt  and  other  impurities,  and  by  unequal 
contraction  while  cooling;  uneven  thickness  caused  by  the  dis- 
placement of  the  cores;  and  cold-shuts,  or  weak  seams,  caused  by 
the  chilling  of  the  iron  where  the  molten  metal  is  poured  from  different 
ends  of  the  casting.  The  mold  so  chills  the  iron  that  it  does  not 
properly  mix  and  unite  when  it  comes  together  in  the  mold.  Castings 
should  remain  in  the  mold  until  cold;  the  slower  the  cooling  the 
better,  for  irregular  and  too  rapid  cooling  seriously  injures  castings, 
particularly  where  different  thicknesses  of  metal  occur,  by  causing 
strains  that  often  result  in  rupture  under  a  small  load. 

Inspection  of  Castings.  The  inspector  can  test  castings  roughly 
by  the  use  of  a  hammer.  Honeycomb,  blowholes,  sand  holes,  etc., 
cause  a  dullness  in  the  sound  when  the  casting  is  struck.  Gray 
and  white  cast  iron  can  often  be  distinguished  by  the  blow  of  a 
hammer  on  the  edge  of  the  casting.  The  one  is  soft  enough  to 
be  slightly  indented,  while  the  other,  being  hard  and  brittle,  chips 
off.  In  order  that  the  flaws,  shrinkage  cracks,  and  blowholes  may 
be  detected,  all  castings  should  be  inspected  carefully  when  they 
first  come  out  of  the  molding  sand — after  they  have  been  thoroughly 
cleaned  with  steel  brushes  or  in  some  other  way  but  before  they 
are  painted  and  "doctored  up". 

In  long  castings,  or  where  calipers  cannot  be  used,  small  holes 
should  be  drilled  into  the  different  sides  so  that  tests  of  the  thickness 
of  the  metal  may  be  made.  All  castings  should  be  tested  for  true- 


26  BUILDING  SUPERINTENDENCE 

ness  of  shape  and  dimensions.  They  should  have  a  clear  smooth 
surface  with  regular  faces  and  sharp  angles.  The  texture  of  the 
iron  should  show  even  and  close  grained  when  broken;  the  color 
should  be  a  light  bluish  gray;  and  the  fracture  should  have  con- 
siderable metallic  luster.  Both  texture  and  color  should  be  uniform. 
If  the  fracture  should  show  crystalline  patches,  or  should  be  mottled 
either  with  dark  or  light  iron,  the  casting  may  be  unsafe;  blowholes 
will  make  it  still  more  unsafe. 

Tests  of  Castings.  In  important  work,  where  it  is  essential 
that  the  castings  should  have  a  given  and  uniform  strength,  tests 
are  made.  Test  bars  are  poured  before  and  after  the  castings  are 
made,  at  least  one  for  each  two  thousand  pounds  of  castings,  or 
in  such  manner  as  the  specifications  demand.  These  bars  are 
usually  made  1  inch  by  3  inches  by  either  14  or  26  inches.  They 
are  placed  narrow  side  up  on  supports  either  12  or  24  inches  apart, 
and  are  loaded  in  the  center  until  they  break,  record  being  kept 
of  the  deflection  and  breaking  weight.  The  bars  that  are  to  be 
tested  for  tensile  strength  are  turned  down  by  a  machine  to  a  given 
accurate  diameter  and  then  pulled  apart  in  a  testing  machine. 

Wrought  Iron.  Wrought  iron,  when  perfect,  is  simply  pure 
iron  without  carbon  or  impurities  of  any  sort.  It  has  a  property 
which  neither  cast  iron  nor  steel  has — it  can  be  welded  in  the  old- 
fashioned  way.  That  is,  if  two  pieces  are  firmly  pressed  or  hammered 
together  when  nearly  at  white  heat,  they  adhere  and  make  one 
piece.  Cast  iron  and  steel  can  now  be  welded  by  submitting  them 
to  certain  recently  discovered  processes,  such  as  the  oxy-acetylene 
process. 

Qualities.  Good  iron  is  ductile,  tough,  and  fibrous,  free  from 
flaws,  blisters,  cinder  pockets,  buckles,  and  cracks  along  the  edges. 
It  is  readily  heated,  soft  under  the  hammer,  and  throws  out  few 
sparks.  When  broken  gradually,  it  shows  long  silky  fibers  of 
leaden-gray  color  which  twist  and  stick  together  before  breaking. 
When  broken  rapidly,  it  has  a  crystalline  appearance  in  the  fracture. 

Wrought  iron  which  is  brittle  when  cold  or  which  cracks  when 
bent  double,  contains  phosphorus.  This  is  called  "cold-short" 
iron  and  is  indicated,  when  broken,  either  by  a  coarse  grain  with 
discolored  spots,  or  by  a  fine  grain  of  steely  appearance.  Wrought 
iron  which  cracks  when  bent  at  a  r.ed  heat  but  has  considerable 


BUILDING  SUPERINTENDENCE  27 

tenacity  when  cold,  contains  sulphur,  copper,  arsenic,  and  other 
impurities  and  is  known  as  "red-short"  iron.  Cracks  on  the  edges 
of  the  bar  are  indications  of  red-short  iron.  Good  wrought  iron 
does  not  crack  when  bent  180  degrees  around  a  bar  with  a  diameter 
twice  the  thickness  of  the  piece,  or,  when  heated  to  a  working  tem- 
perature, it  is  bent  sharply  to  a  right  angle.  When  cut  slightly 
on  one  side  and  then  bent,  the  fracture  is  nearly  all  fibrous. 

Wrought  iron  which  is  not  rolled  or  hammered  after  it  has 
been  brought  to  a  white  heat  is  injured.  Wrhen  the  hot  iron  is 
suddenly  cooled  in  water,  it  hardens  ano1,  if  the  load  is  gradually 
applied,  the  brealdng  strength  increases,  but  the  iron  is  more  likely 
to  snap  suddenly  without  warning.  W'hen  the  metal  is  allowed 
to  cool  gradually,  it  softens  and  the  breaking  strength  is  reduced. 

Rivets  are  usually  made  of  soft,  tough  wrought  iron,  or  of 
good  soft  steel,  neither  of  which  should  crack  when  bent  cold  until 
the  sides  come  together. 

Tests  of  Wrought  Iron.  In  the  mill  inspection  of  wrought  iron, 
all  tests  are  made  after  the  rolling  process,  for,  on  account  of  the  way 
this  material  is  manufactured,  accurate  tests  cannot  be  made  before. 

Tests  for  tensile  strength,  ductility,  and.  elasticity  are  made 
by  placing  test  bars,  cut  from  the  full-sized  bar,  in  the  testing 
machines,  and  recording  the  different  weights  observed.  These 
test  pieces  are  usually  made  1  inch  wide,  by  the  thickness  of  the 
piece  from  which  it  is  taken,  by  about  18  inches  long. 

Steel.  Steel  can  usually  be  determined  or  distinguished  from 
wrought  or  cast  iron  by  the  property  of  temper  which  it  possesses, 
although  the  soft  steels  do  not  take  a  temper.  When  steel  is 
suddenly  cooled  after  being  heated  to  a  high  temperature,  it  hardens 
and  the  degree  of  hardness  or  softness  can  be  accurately  regulated 
by  the  degree  of  temperature  to  which  the  steel  has  been  heated. 
This  is  called  giving  it  a  temper. 

Another  method  of  determining  steel  is  by  the  nitric-acid 
test.  A  drop  of  the  acid  produces  on  steel  a  dark  gray  stain. 

Varieties  of  Steel.  Steel  is  made  by  many  processes,  either 
by  adding  carbon  to  wrought  iron  or  by  removing  a  portion  of 
the  carbon  in  pig  iron.  Those  most  commonly  employed  in  making 
steel  for  structural  purposes  are  the  Bessemer  and  open-hearth 
processes,  the  latter  being  the  one  now  most  generally  used. 


28  BUILDING  SUPERINTENDENCE 

In  the  acid  process  the  lining  of  the  converter  or  of  the  hearth 
is  of  a  siliceous  material,  such  as  limestone  or  quartz.  In  the  basic 
process,  the  lining  is  made  of  calcined  dolomite  containing  lime 
and  magnesia,  or  some  refractory  substance  which  contains  prac- 
tically no  silica. 

Besides  the  varieties  of  steel  given  there  are  those  known  as 
puddled,  blister,  shear,  and  natural  steel. 

The  three  different  grades  of  steel  commonly  spoken  of  are 
mild  or  soft,  medium,  and  hard.  Steels  with  less  than  15  per  cent 
carbon  are  soft;  with  from  15  per  cent  to  30  per  cent  carbon  are 
medium;  with  more  than  30  per  cent  carbon  are  hard. 

For  boiler  plates  and  rivets,  or  where  high  ductility  is  desired, 
soft  steels  are  used.  For  general  structural  purposes  the  mild 
steels  are  also  used,  while  for  axles,  shafts,  tools,  and  good  wearing 
surfaces,  the  hard  steels  are  preferred.  When  greater  hardness 
and  tenacity  is  desired,  steel  alloys  are  made  by  adding  to  the 
molten  steel,  small  quantities  of  some  metal  such  as  nickel,  man- 
ganese, chromium,  or  tungsten.  These  steel  alloys  are  not  com- 
monly used  in  structural  work. 

When  the  metal  is  taken  from  the  Bessemer  converter,  or 
from  the  open-hearth,  it  is  run  into  ladles  and  poured  into  molds 
of  uniform  and  specific  sizes,  usually  holding  more  than  15,000 
pounds  of  metal,  termed  ingot  molds.  As  the  steel  comes  from 
the  molds  in  the  form  of  ingots,  it  is  rolled  into  the  different  shapes 
used  in  the  trade,  such  as  plates,  bars,  angles,  channels,  and  I-beams. 

Inspection  of  Steel.  The  mill  inspector's  work  at  a  steel  mill 
is  largely  confined  to  the  examination  and  testing  of  the  ingots. 

The  following  defects  are  likely  to  be  encountered  in  the 
inspection  of  ingots:  segregation,  which  means  the  gathering  together 
by  themselves  during  the  cooling  of  the  ingot,  of  certain  constituents, 
such  as  carbon,  phosphorus,  sulphur,  and  sometimes  manganese 
and  silica;  cracks,  both  internal  and  external,  caused  by  too  rapid 
cooling;  blowholes,  caused  by  gas  escaping  during  the  cooling; 
pipes  or  cavities  of  conical  shape,  usually  in  the  top  of  the  ingot 
and  caused  by  the  outside  cooling  more  rapidly  than  the  inside. 
The  ingot  should  be  a  solid  mass  of  metal  of  regular  shape  when  it 
reaches  the  rolls,  in  order  that  seams,  laminations,  laps  that  do 
not  weld,  cracks,  pits,  and  other  defects  may  not  occur  in  the  finished 


BUILDING  SUPERINTENDENCE  29 

rolled  steel.  Ingots  should,  therefore,  be  bottom  cast  and  not 
disturbed  until  the  metal  has  become  solid  enough  to  be  moved 
without  disturbing  it.  Ingots  hi  which  some  of  the  metal  has  run 
from  the  mold  so  as  to  leave  a  cavity — bled  ingots — should  be 
rejected. 

After  a  man  has  had  considerable  experience,  he  can  judge 
somewhat  of  the  quality  and  grade  of  steel  by  the  appearance  of 
the  fracture;  as  the  fracture,  however,  may  be  affected  by  the  manner 
in  which  it  is  made,  this  test  is  usually  found  to  be  uncertain. 

The  quality  and  grade  of  the  ingot  steel  is  determined  by 
testing  samples  of  each  heat  or  blow,  obtained  by  running  a  small 
quantity  of  the  molten  metal  into  molds  usually  about  4  niches 
square,  and  afterward  rolling  them  down  to  f  inch  round;  also  by 
taking  drillings  directly  from  one  of  the  ingots.  These  samples  are 
usually  tested  for  chemical  analysis,  for  elastic  limit,  and  for 
ultimate  strength. 

Marking  and  Recording.  It  is  essential  that  each  ingot  tested 
should  be  clearly  marked  in  some  permanent  way,  either  by  stamps 
or  by  painting,  so  that  the  bar  itself  and  the  shapes  it  subsequently 
assumes  can  be  readily  and  accurately  identified  at  any  time. 

A  complete  record  of  each  furnace,  or  converter  full  of  melted 
steel  should  be  kept,  stating  the  character  of  the  raw  materials 
that  went  into  the  melt,  the  size  and  number  of  ingots  produced, 
the  number  rejected,  and  the  reason  for  their  rejection. 

Inspection  of  Rolling.  The  inspector  of  the  rolled  steel  should 
watch  for  any  defects  which  prevent  the  rolled  shape  from  being 
a  solid,  uniform  mass  of  steel,  without  cracks,  seams,  lamina- 
tions, pits,  cavities  of  any  sort,  or  any  other  fault  that  will  injure 
its  strength  and  durability.  The  shapes  should  also  be  inspected 
for  the  proper  size  and  dimensions,  and  for  the  straightness  and 
trueness  of  the  different  pieces. 

Tests  of  Rolled  Steel.  The  inspector  should  select  certain 
places  in  the  rolled  steel  where  test  pieces  shall  be  cut,  properly 
mark  them,  and  keep  a  record  of  the  places.  The  testing  of  the 
samples  is  done  usually  in  accordance  with  the  engineer's  speci- 
fications, which  often  direct  minutely  how  the  tests  shall  be  made. 
The  more  common  tests  are  the  tensile,  bending  (both  hot  and  cold), 
drifting  (where  holes  punched  a  certain  distance  from  the  edge 


30  BUILDING  SUPERINTENDENCE 

of  the  piece  are  enlarged  by  driving  drift  pins  of  a  certain  size  through 
them,  and  the  result  noted),  welding,  forging,  hardening,  and  acid 
(where  the  material  is  placed  in  dilute  sulphuric  or  nitric  acid  for 
a  certain  period,  and,  upon  removal,  its  appearance  noted).  In 
making  these  tests,  all  materials  not  conforming  to  the  specified 
requirements  should  be  rejected. 

Steel  Specifications.  It  is  needless  to  say  that  the  engineer, 
in  preparing  his  specifications,  should  be  very  careful  with  regard 
to  the  qualities  and  characteristics  of  the  materials  he  demands 
and  the  tests  they  should  stand.  Usually,  consultation  with  prac- 
tical manufacturers  of  steel  is  necessary,  in  order  to  get  desired 
results.  The  specifications  should  be  consistent.  Unless  the 
engineer  is  an  expert  steel-maker,  he  should  not  attempt  to  specify 
both  the  exact  chemical  formula  and  the  physical  requirements, 
for  by  so  doing  he  may  demand  that  which  cannot  be  obtained 
in  one  piece  of  steel.  He  should,  however,  fix  certain  limits,  liberal 
rather  than  rigid,  beyond  which  the  hurtful  elements  should  not  go. 

Necessity  of  Mill  Inspection.  Except  in  the  more  important 
work,  where  the  engineer  in  his  design  has  utilized  his  materials 
up  to  a  high  limit,  and  a  uniform  given  strength  is  of  the  utmost 
importance,  mill  inspection  may  not  be  required.  It  will  be  found 
that  commercial  grades  of  materials  of  known  uniformity  can  now 
be  purchased  from  several  different  reputable  makers  and  furnished 
in  prompt  deliveries,  thus  making  it  unnecessary  to  delay  the  work 
by  insisting  on  the  mill  inspection.  It  is  enough  to  bind  the  man- 
ufacturer to  stand  back  of  the  materials  he  furnishes. 

SHOP  INSPECTION 

Amount  of  Inspection  Varies  with  Work.  As  in  other  things, 
it  is  well  for  the  work  and  for  the  inspector  if  the  fabrication  is 
given  into  the  hands  of  shops  which  are  properly  equipped  with 
machinery,  men,  and  management,  and  capable  of  performing  the 
class  of  work  desired. 

The  degree  of  accuracy  of  the  shop  work  and  the  rigidity  of 
inspection  should  be  governed  by  the  character  and  the  nature 
of  the  structure  into  which  the  finished  work  is  to  go.  For  bridges, 
especially  heavy  bridges  of  long  spans,  and  other  structures  where 
the  engineer  of  necessity  has  strained  the  materials  to  the  limit, 


BUILDING  SUPERINTENDENCE  31 

very  careful  work  must  be  specified  and  required.  For  other  struc- 
tures, such  as  buildings  where  a  greater  factor  of  safety  is  used 
in  the  design,  or  where  the  failure  of  one  piece  will  not  necessarily 
jeopardize  the  entire  structure,  less  exactness  can  be  required. 
It  is  needless  to  say  that  the  more  exacting  the  requirements,  the 
greater  is  the  cost  of  the  shop  work. 

The  specified  requirements  and  the  inspection  should  be  prac- 
tical and  not  too  theoretical;  they  should  be  made  commensurate 
with  the  amount  of  money  that  the  owner  wants  to  and  ought  to 
spend  for  work  of  the  character  ordinarily  furnished  for  similar 
structures. 

Drawings  in  Shop.  One  of  the  first  duties  of  the  shop  inspector 
is  to  see  that  detail  drawings  which  have  the  approval  and  sig- 
nature of  the  designing  engineer  are  being  followed.  Sometimes 
the  shops  make  their  own  details  and  it  is  important  that  these 
have  the  signature  of  approval.  The  inspector  should  be  supplied 
with  a  complete  set  of  these  drawings  together  with  a  copy  of  the 
specifications  and  a  bill  of  materials.  He  should  have  also  a  private 
place  where  he  can  keep  these  papers  for  his  own  use.  If  the 
specifications  call  for  mill  inspection,  the  shop  inspector  should 
be  supplied  promptly  with  a  copy  of  the  mill  inspection  notes, 
and  he  should  see  that  all  materials  coming  to  the  shop  to  be  used 
on  his  work  have  been  inspected  and  passed  by  the  mill  inspector. 

Shop  Processes.  The  various  processes  through  which  the 
materials  are  passed  in  the  shop  wTill  now  be  considered  somewhat 
in  detail. 

First  Straightening  of  Materials.  The  steel  and  wrought-iron 
plates,  bars,  and  other  structural  shapes  coming  to  the  shop  from 
the  rolling  mill  are  carefully  straightened  and  made  true  to  shape 
by  passing  the  materials  through  straightening  rolls  and  other 
machines  of  different  types.  It  is  a  matter  of  great  moment  to 
see  that  the  work  is  properly  done,  because  upon  this  depends  the 
right  distribution  of  the  stresses  for  the  different  portions  of  the 
completed  built-up  members.  Generally,  the  shop  officials  recog- 
nize the  importance  of  having  the  materials  straight  and  true, 
because  they  know  that  work  performed  in  this  operation  is  more 
than  offset  by  the  saving  in  labor  and  time  in  the  assembling  of 
the  different  pieces  in  the  built-up  member. 


32  BUILDING  SUPERINTENDENCE 

Marking.  The  next  process  is  the  marking  off  of  the  material. 
This  is  usually  done  by  clamping  to  the  steel,  wooden  templates 
prepared  by  template  makers,  and  marking  the  steel  according 
to  the  templates.  Cuts  are  marked  with  a  sharp  hard  instrument, 
and  holes  to  be  punched  or  drilled  are  indicated  by  center  punches. 

Punching.  The  next  process  is  the  punching.  It  is  important 
that  the  machines,  the  punches,  and  the  dies  be  of  proper  size  and 
design,  and  that  the  edges  be  sharp  and  unbroken;  otherwise,  cracked 
and  ragged  holes  will  occur  which  should  not  be  tolerated  under 
any  circumstances.  The  diameter  of  the  die  should  never  be  more 
than  ^g  inch  larger  than  the  diameter  of  the  punch. 

Second  Straightening.  After  the  punching  is  completed,  the 
materials  should  again  be  straightened  and  trued  up,  because  the 
process  of  punching  causes  more  or  less  buckling.  If  not  straight- 
ened, the  several  pieces  to  be  riveted  cannot  be  properly  brought 
together  and  fitted,  and  often  there  will  be  enough  spring  between 
them  to  distort  the  rivets,  so  that  many  will  be  found  loose  when 
cooled. 

Assembling.  The  next  process  is  an  important  one.  It  is 
the  assembling  of  the  various  separate  pieces  to  form  the  built-up 
members,  the  pieces  being  held  together  temporarily  by  means  of 
holding  or  assembling  bolts.  The  inspector  must  insist  there 
shall  be  a  sufficient  number  of  bolts  to  hold  the  work  properly 
while  it  is  being  riveted;  oftentimes  the  lack  of  a  few  assembling 
bolts  causes  a  serious  defect  in  the  built-up  member.  The  inspector 
should  also  watch  to  see  that  the  several  pieces  are  put  together 
properly;  that  right-hand  members  are  not  put  where  left-hand 
ones  belong;  that  certain  pieces  are  not  turned  end  for  end;  and 
that  other  mistakes  of  the  kind  do  not  occur.  All  surfaces  riveted 
together  which  cannot  be  painted  after  riveting  should  be  painted 
before  they  are  assembled. 

Reaming.  When  the  holes  are  to  be  reamed,  they  should  be 
punched  somewhat  smaller  than  the  size  of  the  finished  hole.  Punch- 
ing tends  to  distress  the  metal  on  the  edge  of  the  hole,  and  thereby 
impairs  the  strength  of  the  member  to  a  greater  or  less  degree. 
The  extent  of  this  distressed  material  varies  with  the  thickness 
of  the  metal  punched  and  with  the  size  of  the  punch  used.  Reaming 
is  the  removal  of  this  distressed  material  by  the  use  of  a  sharp 


BUILDING  SUPERINTENDENCE  33 

rotary  tool  called  a  reamer.  It  is  sometimes  omitted  in  unimportant 
work,  nor  is  it  frequently  done  in  building  work  except  in  column 
splices  and  at  important  connections,  but  it  is  almost  always  specified 
for  all  holes  in  bridge  and  railroad  work.  If  desired,  it  should  be 
definitely  specified.  Reaming  can  be  done  in  the  separate  pieces 
before  assembling;  it  is  better,  however,  to  do  it  after  assembling, 
for  then  the  holes  in  the  different  pieces  are  sure  to  correspond 
exactly  and  are  "fair"  for  riveting,  a  most  desirable  thing.  In 
fact,  where  reaming  is  not  particularly  mentioned,  and  where  punched 
holes  are  supposed  to  come  together  accurately  but  do  not  do  so, 
the  inspector  should  insist  that  a  reamer  be  used  to  correct  the  error. 
When  this  is  done,  a  larger-sized  rivet  than  the  one  specified  will 
be  required  properly  to  fill  the  enlarged  hole.  The  finished  hole 
should  be  about  ^  inch  larger  than  the  diameter  of  the  rivet  specified. 
Reaming,  of  course,  improves  the  work,  but  adds  some  to  its  cost. 

Drifting.  The  shop  men  generally  make  a  good  deal  of  use 
of  the  driftpin,  which  is  a  cigar-shaped  hardened-steel  pin,  used  to 
make  the  holes  in  the  different  pieces  come  together  in  the  assem- 
bling process,  and  to  make  the  holes  "fair"  or  true  for  the  rivet. 
This  latter  process  should  never  be  permitted  except  in  the  cheapest 
kind  of  work  or  in  unimportant  places.  Drifting  distorts  the  material 
and  in  good  work  is  never  allowed  after  the  assembled  pieces  are 
bolted  up  and  some  of  the  rivets  have  been  driven.  In  fact,  it  is 
sometimes  dangerous  to  allow  it,  because  of  the  unequal  strains 
it  produces  in  the  different  pieces  of  the  member. 

Many  first-class  shops  use  the  reamer  without  being  told,  as 
they  find  that  the  extra  cost  in  so  doing  is  offset  by  the  saving  in 
the  cost  of  riveting.  With  perfectly  true  holes,  the  riveting  goes 
much  faster  than  otherwise.  All  burrs  should  be  removed  from 
the  edge  of  holes  before  the  riveting  is  done. 

Riveting.  After  the  reaming  comes  the  riveting.  In  addition 
to  seeing  that  the  rivets  are  made  of  good  material,  there  are  two 
things  which  are  essential  in  good  riveting — the  rivets  should  be 
properly  heated,  and  they  should  be  properly  driven.  The  heating 
must  be  especially  watched,  because  after  the  rivet  has  been  driven 
there  is  no  way  of  telling  whether  or  not  it  has  been  burned.  The 
head  may  look  as  it  should,  while  the  shank  may  be  much  injured 
and  weakened.  The  heating  forge  should  be  placed  conveniently 


34  BUILDING  SUPERINTENDENCE 

near  the  work.  The  rivets  should  be  heated  uniformly  to  a  dull 
red  heat,  never  beyond  the  orange  color,  as  burned  rivets  are  brittle 
and  much  impaired  in  strength.  Nor  should  rivets  be  driven  if 
they  are  not  heated  to  the  red  color,  for  then  they  do  not  always 
fill  the  hole  and  the  rivet  metal  is  injured.  Steel  rivets  require 
more  watching  than  wrought-iron  rivets,  to  see  that  overheating 
and  underheating  do  not  occur.  They  should  be  driven  just  as 
rapidly  as  can  be,  after  they  have  reached  the  proper  heat.  If 
too  many  are  placed  in  the  forge  at  one  time,  they  are  likely  to 
become  overheated  and  spoiled. 

Power  riveting  machines  are  used  almost  exclusively  nowadays 
for  driving  the  heated  rivets.  The  pressure  required  to  fill  the  holes 
properly  is  from  50  to  150  tons  to  the  square  inch  of  rivet  section. 

Loose  Rivets.  It  is  important  that  the  right  length  of  rivet 
be  selected  for  each  hole.  The  rivet  must  completely  fill  the  hole, 
that  is,  the  heads  must  be  concentric,  and  fit  absolutely  tight  all 
around.  The  riveting  machine  should  make  no  marks  in  the  metal 
of  the  heads,  and  the  heads,  when  finished,  should  also  be  without 
cracks. 

All  loose  rivets  or  those  loosely  driven  should  be  rejected  abso- 
lutely, and  fresh  ones  driven  into  the  holes.  The  defective  ones 
can  be  detected  by  hitting  a  sharp  blow  on  each  side  of  the  head 
with  an  inspector's  hammer.  This  is  a  special  tool,  weighing 
one  pound  or  less,  with  a  handle  quite  small  at  the  shank,  to  absorb 
at  this  point  some  of  the  spring  of  the  hammer.  Practice  soon 
enables  the  inspector  to  tell  the  loose  rivets  by  the  action  of  the 
hammer.  Sometimes  they  are  made  to  appear  tight  by  the  use, 
after  they  are  cold,  of  a  calking  iron,  but  the  marks  of  the  iron  can 
generally  be  detected.  The  more  modern  way  of  concealing  loose 
rivets  is  by  squeezing  the  cold  heads  with  a  smaller  die,  or  by  striking 
the  cold  heads  on  the  sides  with  the  riveting  machine.  These  last 
two  methods  are  not  so  easily  detected  after  the  men  are  through 
with  the  work.  Re-driving  cold  rivets  by  any  method,  and  calking 
rivet  heads,  should  not  be  permitted. 

Rejecting  Rivets.  When  the  inspector  rejects  a  rivet,  he 
should  mark  it  by  striking  it  a  blow  with  the  stamping  end  of  his 
hammer  or  by  some  punch.  He  should  also  mark  the  metal  close 
to  the  rivet  in  the  same  way  so  that  the  new  rivet  can  easily  be 


BUILDING  SUPERINTENDENCE  3:> 

found  and  inspected.  After  this,  a  ring  of  chalk  or  of  paint  should 
be  made  around  the  rivet  so  that  the  shop  men  will  not  overlook 
the  rejections.  It  is  important  that  the  different  pieces  to  be 
riveted  together  shall  be  securely  and  snugly  held  by  a  sufficient 
number  of  temporary  bolts  before  the  riveting  is  started. 

As  in  other  things,  an  inspector  can  go  to  extremes  in  the  testing 
of  rivets  and  thereby  do  more  harm  often  than  real  good.  In  the 
best  shops,  where  high-powered  machines  and  modern  rivet-heating 
furnaces  are  used,  there  will  be  comparatively  few  rivets  driven 
that  really  need  to  be  rejected.  The  inspector  soon  learns  where 
to  draw  the  line.  The  importance  of  the  structure  should  govern 
somewhat  the  exactness  required.  In  large  bridges  and  railroad 
work,  the  riveting  should  be  nearer  to  perfection  than  in  building 
work,  although  a  good  job  should  always  be  required  on  columns 
going  into  a  building  or  any  other  structure.  While  poor  work- 
manship should  never  be  accepted,  there  are  degrees  of  good  work- 
manship. In  a  bridge  the  engineer  depends  almost  entirely  upon 
the  different  members  to  resist  the  loads,  and  he  must  of  necessity 
strain  his  materials  to  a  high  limit.  A  failure  of  one  connection 
in  a  bridge  is  likely  to  cause  the  collapse  of  the  entire  structure, 
but  in  a  building  such  a  failure  merely  causes  a  local  injury  and 
does  not  essentially  damage  the  structure  as  a  whole.  It  will  be 
readily  recognized  that  in  a  building  some  members  are  of  more 
importance  than  others;  particularly  is  this  the  case  with  the  columns, 
because  if  one  column  near  the  foundation  were  to  give  way,  great 
harm  would  be  done;  the  collapse  of  a  floor  beam,  however,  is  not 
likely  to  result  in  any  great  damage.  In  a  building  other  materials 
are  used  in  the  construction  which  help  the  steel  but  which  the 
designing  engineer  usually  ignores  in  determining  the  size  of  the 
steel  members,  mainly  because  he  cannot  know  definitely  the  precise 
way  in  which  these  other  materials  will  be  placed.  However,  it 
is  very  seldom  that  the  steel  in  a  building  is  left  uncovered;  it  will 
be  encased  in  concrete,  brick,  fireproofing,  etc.,  all  of  which  will 
actually  stiffen  the  structure  and  act  as  partial  supports  to  the 
horizontal  members. 

Another  side  of  this  question  of  rejection  is  the  moral  effect 
that  will  sometimes  be  produced  by  a  judicial  action  with  regard 
to  a  few  rivets.  An  inspector  should  never  under  any  circumstances 


36  BUILDING  SUPERINTENDENCE 

be  revengeful;  he  must  always  be  sure  that  there  is  some  reason 
for  his  rejections,  but  he  is  justified  in  being  more  exacting  when  he 
finds  that  the  shop  men  are  inclined  to  take  advantage  of  his  leniency. 
Again,  the  shop  crew,  while  not  actually  doing  bad  work,  may  become 
somewhat  lax  in  their  efforts  and  need  a  spur  to  keep  them  up  to 
the  standard.  No  set  rules  can  be  given  as  to  what  is  the  right 
thing  to  do  in  these  cases;  each  problem  must  be  solved  when  it 
presents  itself  by  the  liberal  use  of  common  sense,  good  judgment, 
and  knowledge  of  human  nature. 

Planing  and  Milling.  After  each  member  has  been  riveted, 
it  is  taken  to  the  planers  and  drill  presses  where  the  ends  are  made 
square  and  true,  where  all  bevels  are  cut  and  the  piece  made  the 
proper  finished  length,  and  where  the  pin  and  other  holes  are  drilled. 
The  inspector  should  see  that  all  cuts  and  holes  are  located  in  the 
right  places  and  in  accordance  with  the  drawings. 

In  making  measurements,  nothing  but  a  good  quality  of  steel 
tape  should  ever  be  used  and  this  should  be  tested  from  time  to 
time  with  a  standard  measure  and  correction  made  if  necessary. 

When  the  piece  leaves  the  planer  and  drill  press,  it  should  be 
thoroughly  inspected  to  see  that  all  the  requirements  of  the  speci- 
fications and  drawings  have  been  fully  carried  out. 

Painting.  It  is  necessary  for  the  inspector  to  pass  on  the  work 
before  it  is  painted,  because  the  paint  so  covers  the  work  that  it 
is  difficult  to  detect  many  of  the  errors. 

The  inspection  of  the  painting  should  be  carefully  made.  Paint- 
ing is  regarded  as  a  preservative  of  the  steel,  but  to  be  effective 
it  must  be  properly  done.  The  inspector  should  satisfy  himself 
that  the  paint  used  is  the  brand  and  quality  specified.  Adultera- 
tions and  substitutions,  while  not  often  attempted  by  the  good 
shops,  are  easy  to  make,  and  when  made  are  for  the  purpose  of 
lowering  the  cost,  not  of  improving  the  paint.  Whenever  there 
is  a  suspicion  of  unfair  dealing,  chemical  analysis  of  the  paint  will 
aid  in  the  detection. 

Before  the  paint  is  applied,  the  surface  of  the  steel  must  be 
carefully  brushed  with  steel  brushes  to  remove  all  loose  rust  and, 
especially,  all  loose  scale.  The  surface  must  also  be  dry,  as  water 
and  dampness  prevent  the  paint  from  adhering,  and  thus  make 
it  possible  for  rust  to  start.  It  is  best  to  have  the  painting  done 


BUILDING  SUPERINTENDENCE  37 

in  some  sheltered  place  that  has  a  roof,  where  the  temperature  is 
not  allowed  to  get  too  low. 

Daily  Record.  The  inspector  should  keep  a  carefully  prepared 
daily  record  of  the  work  while  it  is  going  through  the  shop,  par- 
ticularly if  there  is  a  time  limit  to  the  contract.  Such  a  record  is 
usually  kept  on  printed  forms  with  headings  so  as  to  simplify  the 
process  as  much  as  possible.  A  good  example  of  a  form  used  is 
one  that  has  vertical  rulings  with  headings  at  the  top,  reading  from 
left  to  right  as  follows:  Number  of  Drawing;  Name  of  Piece; 
Date;  Punched;  Assembled;  Reamed;  Riveted;  Milled;  Painted; 
Shipped;  Remarks. 

These  records  should  be  made  in  triplicate,  or  as  many  copies 
supplied  as  may  be  required,  so  that  the  designing  engineer  and  all 
those  entitled  to  them  may  have  copies  without  delay. 

Size  of  Drawings.  It  is  customary  to  make  the  shop  details 
on  sheets  not  much  larger  than  specification  paper  so  that  the 
inspector  can  easily  carry  the  details  around  with  him  through 
the  shop.  However,  if  the  drawings  are  large  and  bulky,  the 
inspector  finds  his  work  simplified  by  entering  in  a  notebook  the 
principal  dimensions  and  other  information  regarding  the  different 
pieces.  This  notebook  should  be  with  him  on  his  inspection  tours 
and  should  often  be  referred  to. 

Loading.  From  time  to  time,  the  inspector  should  see  how 
the  finished  steel  is  being  loaded  on  the  cars  for  shipment.  The 
men  will  be  tempted  to  throw  it  in  the  easiest  way  possible  so  as 
to  fill  the  car  quickly.  Often  the  steel  is  so  loaded  that  the  movement 
and  jar  of  the  car  seriously  injures  the  metal,  causing  a  delay  in 
the  work  while  it  is  being  repaired.  The  inspector  should  insist 
that  the  loading  be  done  so  that  the  steel  will  not  be  twisted  or 
bent  while  in  transit. 

System.  As  in  other  things,  the  more  system  that  the  inspector 
can  put  into  his  work,  the  more  and  better  work  he  can  do.  The 
records  suggested  above  will  furnish  a  means  for  keeping  his  superiors 
informed  of  the  progress  of  the  work,  and  they  will  also  relieve  his 
mind  of  numerous  details  and,  consequently,  of  a  certain  amount 
of  worry  and  uneasiness. 

One  thing  that  an  inspector  often  overlooks  is  getting  the  work 
out  of  the  shop  in  a  sequence  that  conforms  somewhat  to  the  way 


3S  BUILDING  SUPERINTENDENCE 

it  will  be  needed  at  the  site.  While  it  is  not  always  economical 
to  push  the  work  through  the  shop,  this  matter  of  sequence  is  a 
vital  one.  The  records  which  the  inspector  makes  greatly  aid 
him  to  see  that  no  piece  is  overlooked  entirely.  Many  times  the 
whole  building  is  held  up,  awaiting  the  receipt  of  some  small  member 
which  has  been  delayed  in  the  shop  or  in  transit?  Having  on 
the  site  ninety  per  cent  of  all  the  steel  of  a  building  going  above 
the  first  floor  does  not  aid  the  erector  very  much  if  he  is  short  a 
few  of  the  basement  columns.  This  state  of  affairs  often  creates 
confusion  on  account  of  the  lack  of  room  to  store  the  material  at 
the  site. 

Reports.  The  man  who  is  to  superintend  the  erection  of 
the  structure  should  be  supplied  promptly  with  copies  of  the  shop 
inspector's  reports;  and  if  the  specifications  require  mill  inspection, 
with  copies  of  the  mill  inspector's  reports.  These  should  show 
that  all  material  coming  to  the  site  has  been  accepted  by  the  shop 
and  mill  inspectors. 

INSPECTION  AND  SUPERINTENDENCE  OF  ERECTION 

The  remainder  of  this  article  will  deal  with  the  inspection  and 
superintendence  of  the  erection  of  the  structures  after  the  steel 
and  other  materials  have  been  delivered  at  the  site  of  the  building. 

Kinds  of  Structure.  Some  of  the  different  kinds  of  steel  struc- 
tures that  a  superintendent  encounters  in  his  work  are  the  following: 

(1)  Steel  skeleton  buildings,  where  the  entire  load  of  the  build- 
ing, both  of  walls  and  of  interior,  is  carried  on  the  steelwork  or 
frame. 

(2)  Wall-bearing  steel  buildings,  where  the  interior  loads  of 
the  building  are  carried  on  steel  columns,  girders,  and  beams,  but 
the  walls  are  self-supporting  and  carry  the  outer  ends  of  the  girders 
and  beams. 

(3)  Bridges  of  every  type  and  description,  divided  into  two 
general  classes — highway  and  railway. 

(4)  Viaducts,  either  for  highways  or  for  railroads. 

(5)  Subways  under  railroads  or  forming  tunnels  under  city 
streets  for  cars  or  for  traffic  of  any  sort. 

(6)  Elevated  railroads  in  cities,  of  column  and  girder  con- 
struction,  built  for  fast-moving  trains  above  the  traffic  on  the  streets- 


BUILDING  SUPERINTENDENCE  3i) 

(7)  Miscellaneous  structures,  including  tunnels,  gas  tanks, 
grain  elevators,  structures  in  amusement  parks,  steeples,  towers,  etc. 

Different  Methods  of  Erecting  Steel.  Various  methods  used 
in  the  erection  of  steel  structures  include  the  diverse  ways  of  applying 
power,  such  as  steam,  electricity,  air,  or  gasoline,  through  cables, 
ropes,  etc.,  which  are  supported  on  some  kind  of  a  derrick,  crane, 
traveler,  or  similar  appliance,  the  power  being  increased  by  the  use 
of  pulleys,  sheaves,  and  blocks.  The  determination  of  the  proper 
method  to  be  used  in  erecting  a  steel  structure  resolves  itself  into 
a  separate  problem  for  each  individual  case.  It  is  here  that  the 
skill  of  the  contractor  and  his  erecting  engineer  is  brought  into  play. 

If  the  steel  structure  extends  upward,  usually  a  derrick  or 
a  system  of  derricks  is  adopted,  of  a  style  and  size  that  can  be  easily 
and  quickly  elevated  as  the  structure  progresses.  This  method 
applies  to  tall  buildings  and  towers. 

If  the  structure  extends  horizontally,  like  an  elevated  railroad, 
a  bridge,  or  a  train  shed,  then  some  kind  of  a  traveler  or  system 
of  derricks  that  can  be  moved  with  facility  in  a  horizontal  direction 
is  usually  adopted. 

Before  the  proper  method  can  be  determined,  the  contractor 
must  ascertain  accurately  the  different  conditions  that  enter  into 
the  problem.  First  the  weight  and  size  of  the  largest  and  heaviest 
individual  pieces  to  be  erected  must  be  known;  then  the  required 
speed  of  erection  must  be  determined,  and  this  will  decide  the  number 
of  derricks  or  other  machines  to  be  used.  It  can  readily  be  seen 
that  such  machines  can  make  only  so  many  moves  a  day,  and  that 
if  the  pieces  are  too  heavy  to  be  lifted  by  hand,  no  matter  how  many 
men  the  contractor  may  put  on  the  job,  the  limit  of  the  erection 
speed  of  the  structure  is  the  limit  of  the  speed  capacity  of  the  machine 
adopted.  It  is  important  that  a  sufficient  number  of  derricks  be 
arranged  for,  and  the  superintendent  should  satisfy  himself  that 
the  contractor  has  made  no  mistake  in  this  respect.  Each  derrick 
requires  only  a  certain  number  of  men  to  operate  it  properly  and 
economically;  therefore  the  proper  number  of  men  employed  on 
a  given  piece  of  work  is  determined  by  the  number  of  derricks  or 
machines  used  on  that  work.  The  reach  or  length  of  boom  must 
also  be  decided  upon.  The  longer  the  boom  of  a  given  cross-section, 
the  less  load  the  derrick  can  pick  up.  It  is  advisable,  too,  that  all 


40  BUILDING  SUPERINTENDENCE 

parts  of  the  structure  be  reached  with  as  few  moves  of  the  derricks 
as  possible,  as  every  move  takes  time  and  costs  money. 

Derrick  Layout.  If  the  structure  to  be  erected  is  a  building, 
a  convenient  way  of  arriving  at  a  good  derrick  layout  is  to  make 
a  plan  to  scale  of  the  derrick  which  the  contractor  would  like  to 
use  and  cut  this  from  cardboard.  Place  this  on  the  general  setting 
plan  of  the  typical  floor,  and  move  it  around  until  the  best  location 
is  determined  upon.  In  doing  this,  it  must  be  kept  in  mind  that 
proper  supports  for  the  mast  must  be  provided  for,  and  also  proper 
places  of  sufficient  strength  to  which  the  guys  or  ends  of  stiff  legs 
can  be  anchored.  If  these  supports  and  anchor  places  can  be  found 
in  the  structure  already  erected,  then  a  minimum  of  such  work  as 
shoring  is  required,  and  an  expense  in  the  moving  of  the  derricks  saved. 

Bridge  Trawler.  Often  when  the  structure  to  be  erected  is 
an  important  bridge,  the  engineer  who  designs  it  also  designs  the 
traveler  or  whatever  method  is  to  be  employed  in  the  erection. 
By  doing  this,  he  makes  sure  that  the  contractor  will  not  put  undue 
and  unnecessary  strain  upon  the  structure  during  the  construction. 

Locomotive  Crane.  It  is  usual  to  employ  a  locomotive  crane 
or  derrick  car  whenever  the  work  is  of  such  nature  that  it  can  be 
reached  from  a  railroad  track  already  in  place  or  which  can  easily 
be  put  in  place.  A  locomotive  crane,  however,  is  an  expensive 
piece  of  machinery  and  only  the  large  contractors  can  afford  to 
use  one  on  small  jobs.  Of  course  a  job  may  be  important  enough 
to  make  the  purchase  of  a  crane  desirable. 

Capacity  of  Equipment.  It  is  a  very  important  duty  of  the 
superintendent  to  see  that  the  derricks,  travelers,  and  other  machines 
which  the  contractor  proposes  to  use  in  the  erection  of  the  work 
are  of  a  capacity  adequate  to  the  work.  To  determine  this,  the 
superintendent  must  know  something  of  the  theory  of  strains  and 
stresses  in  materials,  and  of  the  theory  of  design  of  structures. 
If  he  does  not  have  this  knowledge,  or  is  in  any  way  doubtful  about 
the  strength  of  the  machinery  for  erection,  he  should  refer  the  matter 
promptly  to  his  superior  or  to  some  engineer  who  is  capable  of 
advising  him  correctly.  Structures  have  been  known  to  collapse 
during  erection  because  of  the  contractor's  carelessness  or  the 
contractor's  or  superintendent's  lack  of  knowledge  regarding  these 
matters. 


BUILDING  SUPERINTENDENCE  41 

Omission  of  Small  Items.  The  superintendent  should  be  con- 
stantly on  the  lookout  for  the  omission  of  the  little  things,  insig- 
nificant or  trivial  to  the  men,  but  really  important  if  the  structure 
is  to  be  made  safe  for  holding  the  equipment. 

It  is  an  old  and  trite  saying  that  a  structure  is  no  stronger 
than  its  weakest  point,  but  this  is  a  very  important  fact  for  every 
superintendent  and  every  other  person  connected  with  the  work 
to  remember.  Many  a  collapse  has  been  caused  by  the  omission 
of  small  things — a  pin,  a  few  bolts  or  rivets — or  by  the  neglect 
of  a  worn-out  cable  or  rope. 

To  repeat,  then,  the  superintendent  must  watch  the  important 
little  things  ceaselessly,  particularly  in  a  job  that  is  being  rushed, 
where  the  men  are  striving  to  make  as  big  a  showing  as  possible. 
The  superintendent  ought  to  keep  in  mind  that  not  only  the  safety 
of  the  structure  itself  but  the  preservation  of  the  lives  of  the  men, 
and  of  his  own  life,  are  dependent  upon  such  watchfulness  and 
knowledge. 

Another  thing  that  it  is  well  for  those  in  charge  of  construc- 
tion work  to  appreciate  is  that  while  it  may  not  take  much  effort 
or  extra  material  to  keep  a  thing  from  starting  to  move,  it  takes 
an  enormous  amount  of  effort  to  stop  it  after  it  has  once  started 
—so  great  an  effort  that  it  is  generally  impossible  to  prevent  the 
collapse  of  the  structure  or  its  parts. 

Necessary  Risks.  It  is  necessary  to  take  some  chances  in 
the  building  business,  but  one  need  not  be  foolhardy  or  reckless. 
As  in  other  things,  the  superintendent  must  be  so  thoroughly  familiar 
with  this  aspect  of  the  work,  that  he  can  tell  whether  or  not  the 
contractor  and  his  men  are  taking  legitimate  risks.  A  superin- 
tendent who  is  too  inexperienced  or  too  fearful  can  often  seriously 
delay  the  progress  of  the  work  by  his  unnecessary  objections  and 
lack  of  confidence,  while  another  can  by  his  ignorance  and  care- 
lessness allow  the  work  to  be  carried  on  in  a  positively  dangerous 
manner.  However,  it  is  better  to  err  on  the  safe  side,  and  be  too 
careful,  rather  than  too  careless. 

Adequate  Equipment.  Every  good  contractor  knows,  too 
often  because  of  bitter  experience,  that  there  is  no  economy  in 
trying  to  do  work  with  machinery,  tools,  or  equipment  of  any  sort 
that  is  too  light  or  in  any  way  inadequate  for  the  work  to  be  per- 


42  BUILDING  SUPERINTENDENCE 

formed.  For  example,  if  the  men  feel  that  the  derrick  they  are 
operating  is  barely  strong  enough  to  lift  the  loads  with  which  it 
has  to  deal,  they  invariably  make  allowances  for  this  weakness, 
at  a  greater  expense  in  wages  paid  than  a  good  derrick  would  have 
cost.  If  the  contractor  is  trying  to  get  along  with  a  twenty-horse- 
power engine  when  the  work  requires  one  of  twenty-five  horsepower, 
he  will  lose  money;  he  will  make  it,  however,  by  installing  an  engine  of 
thirty  or  thirty-five  horsepower.  On  the  other  hand,  if  the  machinery 
and  equipment  is  larger,  more  elaborate,  or  more  complicated  than 
is  necessary,  the  erection  cost  will  be  unjustifiably  large.  The 
capable  contractor  uses  machinery  and  equipment  of  size  and 
capacity  slightly  larger  than  is  required  for  the  work.  His  rig  also 
is  comparatively  simple  and,  as  a  general  rule,  he  lets  others  do 
the  experimenting  with  new  rigs  and  devices. 

Good  Contracting  Engineering.  This  question  of  having  the 
rig  of  proper  size  and  capacity  is,  of  course,  nothing  more  or  less 
than  that  of  good  engineering,  which  means  good  business.  It 
does  not  require  a  very  clever  man  to  design  an  equipment  that 
is  either  too  weak  or  too  strong  for  the  work,  but  it  does  require 
one  of  skill  to  have  it  just  strong  enough  and  not  too  complicated 
or  elaborate.  It  takes  ability  to  employ  men  and  materials  of 
any  sort  economically,  to  know  the  proper  amount  of  work  each 
should  do,  and  to  see  that  the  work  is  done. 

As  with  machinery,  so  with  workmen;  the  capable  contractor 
has  the  right  number  of  men  at  work.  There  is  no  more  economy  in 
trying  to  do  a  piece  of  work  with  too  few  men  than  in  endeavoring 
to  do  it  with  too  many. 

Here  is  another  place  where  it  will  be  seen  that  the  work  of 
the  designing  engineer  differs  from  that  of  the  contractor  and  the 
erecting  engineer.  The  designer  concerns  himself  largely  with 
the  economical  use  of  materials,  while  the  contractor  is  concerned 
with  the  economical  use  of  men  in  handling  the  materials. 

Derricks  Used  in  Steel  Erection 

Classes  of  Derricks.  The  derrick  is  the  steel  setter's  best 
friend  in  the  way  of  machinery,  and  some  form  of  it  is  found  on 
every  job.  It  is  therefore  essential  that  the  superintendent  know 
bow  derricks  are  designed  and  the  advantages  of  the  different  types. 


BUILDING  SUPERINTENDENCE 


43 


There  are  two  general  classes  of  derricks,  namely,  timber  and 
steel;  the  former  type  is  more  common,  but  the  steel  type  is  more 
durable  and  is  growing  in  popularity. 

Timber  derricks  are  those  which  have  the  principal  parts  built 
of  wooden  timbers  connected  by  fittings  made  of  cast  iron,  malleable 


Fig.  1 .    Types  of  Structural  Steel  Used  for  the  Mast  and  Stiff-Leg  in  All-Steel  Derricks 

iron,  or  forgings.  These  are  the  cheapest  to  build.  Some  con- 
tractors think  they  are  better  than  steel  derricks  because  they 
have  more  elasticity,  withstand  knocks  better,  and  are  lighter  to 


44  BUILDING  SUPERINTENDENCE 

handle;  but  they  deteriorate  more  rapidly.  Old  timbers  should 
always  be  examined  carefully  for  faults  in  the  wood,  especially 
where  it  comes  in  contact  with  the  fittings;  such  defects  as  dry 
rot  may  affect  the  strength  of  the  derrick.  Good  irons  and  fittings 
for  timber  derricks  can  be  purchased  from  a  number  of  reliable 
manufacturers  in  the  United  States.  All  such  material  should 
be  of  a  size  and  strength  sufficient  to  withstand  the  violent  strains 
which  are  often  imposed  upon  the  machine.  The  irons  and  fittings 
should  always  be  somewhat  stronger  than  the  timbers  on  which 
they  are  used,  and  so  designed  as  not  to  put  unnecessary  stresses 
upon  the  timber.  The  method  of  fastening  the  fittings  to  the 
timbers  is  a  most  important  part  of  the  design  of  the  derrick. 

It  has  been  learned  that  any  column  carries  more  if  the  load 
is  balanced  on  top  of  it.  A  fitting  fastened  to  a  timber  so  that  it 
tends  to  bend  that  timber  when  the  derrick  is  carrying  a  load  is  not 
well  designed.  The  best  irons  are  those  which  tend  to  strain  the 
timbers  concentrically  and  not  eccentrically.  The  fittings  should 
also  be  fastened  so  as  not  to  split  the  ends  of  the  timbers. 

Steel  derricks  are  those  that  are  built  entirely  of  steel.  In 
Fig.  1,  A  is  upper  end  of  mast,  B  the  middle  interchangeable 
section,  C  the  lower  end  of  mast,  D  the  upper  end  of  stiff  leg,  and 
E  the  lower  end  of  stiff  leg.  Steel  derricks  are  now  used  more 
than  formerly.  They  can  be  of  stronger  construction  than  the 
timber  ones,  and  more  easily  designed  so  that  the  strains  may  be 
applied  concentrically  to  the  different  members.  Steel  derricks 
do  not  withstand  as  hard  side  shocks  as  the  wood,  because  the 
wood  springs,  while  the  steel  becomes  deformed  so  as  to  impair  its 
strength.  Steel  derricks  are  comparatively  expensive  to  build, 
but  if  properly  kept  up  and  painted  as  often  as  necessary,  their 
life  is  indefinite;  another  advantage  they  have  over  the  wood  is 
that  the  different  members,  such  as  the  boom  and  the  mast,  can 
be  made  in  interchangeable  sections,  which  enables  the  user  to 
lengthen  or  shorten  these  members  at  will  with  but  little  trouble. 

Capacity  of  Derricks.  The  capacity  of  a  derrick  depends 
upon  a  number  of  things.  The  quality  of  the  timbers  or  of  the 
steel  must  be  considered;  only  tough,  clear,  straight-grained  sticks, 
or  a  good  quality  of  tough  mild  steel,  should  ever  be  used.  The 
size  and  length  of  the  timbers,  or  the  amount  of  steel  and  its  dis- 


BUILDING  SUPERINTENDENCE  45 

tribution  in  different  members,  are  also 
important.  The  theory  of  column  design 
enters  here;  a  16-  by  16-inch  boom,  60 
feet  long,  does  not  carry  nearly  the  load 
that  a  16-  by  16-inch  boom,  30  feet  long, 
carries.  Again,  the  spread  of  the  metal 
in  the  cross-section  of  a  steel  member 
affects  its  capacity.  For  instance,  if  we 
have  two  booms,  each  80  feet  long  and 
built  up  of  four  angles  of  the  same  size 
and  shape  laced  together,  one  having  the 
angles  spaced  back  to  back  15  inches  and 
the  other  30  inches,  the  latter  will  be  found 
to  carry  much  more  than  the  former. 

Other  things  influencing  the  capacity 
of  the  derrick  are  the  ratio  of  the  length 
of  the  boom  to  the  mast,  the  ratio  of  the 
spread  of  the  guys  to  the  length  of  the 
mast,  the  length  of  the  sills  to  the  length 
of  the  mast  in  a  stiff-leg  derrick,  and  so 
on.  The  shorter  the  mast  is  for  a  given 
length  of  boom,  the  smaller  the  capacity; 
the  nearer  the  guys  of  a  guy  derrick  are 
anchored  to  the  foot  of  the  mast,  the 
smaller  the  capacity;  and  the  shorter  the 
sills  are  for  a  given  length  of  mast  in  a 
stiff-leg  derrick,  the  smaller  the  capa- 
city. 

The  capacity  also  depends  upon  the 
strength  of  the  irons  and  fittings,  and  in 
the  manner  in  which  the  loads  are  applied 
to  the  timbers  through  these;  the  way  in 
which  the  fittings  are  fastened  to  the  tim- 
bers; and  the  number  of  bolts  and  rivets 
used. 

The  capacity  of  a  boom,  mast,  etc., 
can  be  increased  by  means  of  a  4-rod  truss,  Kg.  2.  Boom  with  4-Rod  T™ 

JT  jo-    2  Courtesy  of  Clyde  Iron  Works 


46 


BUILDING  SUPERINTENDENCE 


Fig.  3. 


Strain  Diagram  for  Guy  and  Stiff-Leg 
Derrick — Boom  Horizontal 


Approximate  Strains  upon  Guy  and  Stiff-Leg  Derricks.  A 
simple  way  of  arriving  at  the  approximate  strains  imposed  upon 
a  guy  and  upon  a  stiff-leg  derrick  is  given  below.  It  must  be 
kept  in  mind,  however,  in  applying  the  results  thus  obtained, 

that  the  capacity  of 
.the  derrick  will  be  mod- 
ified by  some  of  the 
items  mentioned  above. 
(See  Figs.  3,  4,  5,  and 
6,  which  are  diagrams 
of  a  derrick  showing 
various  positions  of  the 
boom.) 

Let  M  =  length  of 
mast ;  B  =  length  of  boom ; 
L  =  length  of  topping  lift ; 

G  =  length  of  guy  or  stiff  leg;  S  =  length  of  sill;  V— vertical  distance 
from  top  of  mast  to  a  line  drawn  at  right  angles  to  mast  through 
end  of  boom;  H  =  horizontal  distance  along  this  line  from  mast  to 
end  of  boom;  JF  =  load  in  pounds;  and  restrain  in  pounds  on  tie- 
down  or  anchor. 

Then   (1)   the  compression   strain   in  pounds  on  the  mast  = 

LWM  ,  .  ,     VW 

~MS>    to    wbch    — 

must  be  added  if  V  is 
below  the  top  of  the  mast, 
or  subtracted  if  V  is 
above  the  top  of  the 
mast.  If  V  above  the 
mast  becomes  long 
enough,  the  strain  on  the 
mast  will  become  tension 
instead  of  compression. 
(2)  The  compression 


Fig.  4.     Strain  Diagram  for  Guy  and  Stiff-Leg 

Derrick — Boom  Angle  with  Horizontal  Less 

than  45  Degrees 


strain  in  pounds  on  boom  = 
LW 


BW 

M  ; 


tension  strain  in  pounds  on  top- 

LWG 


ping  lift  =  ~T7~'>  tension  strain  in  pounds  on  guy  or  stiff  leg 


MS' 


BUILDING  SUPERINTENDENCE 


47 


Fig.  5.     Strain  Diagram  for  Guy  and  Stiff-Leg 
Derrick — Boom  Angle  45  Degrees 


,          .„    BWH  ^    . 

compression  strain  in  pounds  on  sill  =    , ,  p  ;   and  vertical  tension 

M.  L> 

strain  in  pounds  on  the  tie-down  or  anchor  = 

(strain  in  pounds  on  guy  or  stiff  leg)  XM 

Note  that  if  this  strain 
is  directed  in  any  direction 
other  than  at  right  angles  to 
sill,  the  amount  of  strain 
will  vary  with  the  angle  of 
direction.  The  student 
should  apply  the  above  form- 
ulas to  a  number  of  derricks 
of  different  proportions  and 
with  the  boom  in  various 
positions — from  the  hori- 
zontal almost  to  the  vertical — and  note  how  the  strains  in  the 
different  members  change  as  the  proportions  and  the  positions  of 
the  boom  change.  If  the  student  does  his  work  rightly,  he  will 
observe  the  following  facts: 

(1)  When  the  boom  is  in  a 
horizontal  position,  directly 
opposite  to  a  stiff  leg  or  guy 
and  in  line  with  it,  all  the 
members  of  the  derrick  in 
line  with  the  boom  are  sub- 
jected to  the  greatest  strains 
that  can  be  put  upon  them 
by  the  ordinary  method  of 
loading,  with  the  exception 
of  the  compression  strain  on 

tViP    hnnm      wV»ir4i     rlnpQ     nnt  Fig.  6.    Strain  Diagram  for  Guy  and  Stiff-Leg         • 

m,     WniC.  Derrick— Boom  Angle  with  Horizontal 

change  for  any  of  the  vary- 
ing positions  the  boom  may  be  in.  However,  a  horizontal  boom  is 
not  so  strong  as  a  vertical  one  because  its  own  weight  tends  to  sag 
it  at  the  middle.  Therefore  it  will  be  seen  that  the  limit  of  the 
capacity  of  a  guy  or  stiff-leg  derrick  is  the  load  that  can  safely  be 
lifted  by  it  when  the  boom  is  horizontal. 


48 


BUILDING  SUPERINTENDENCE 


(2)  As  the  boom  is  made  shorter  or  the  mast  longer,  the 
strains  on  all  the  members  of  the  derrick  decrease;  while  as  the 
boom  is  made  longer  or  the  mast  shorter,  these  strains  increase. 

(3)  The  length  of  the  sill  does  not  affect  the  strain  on  the 
sill  itself;  as  it  is  made  longer,  however,  less  strain  is  put  upon  the 
stiff  leg,  its  tie-down  or  anchor,  and  upon  the  mast,  but  this  strain 

does  not  affect  those  on  the  other  mem- 
bers. .As  the  sill  is  made  shorter,  a 
greater  strain  is  put  upon  the  stiff  leg, 
its  tie-down  or  anchor,  and  upon  the 
mast,  but  this  does  not  affect  those  on 
the  other  members. 

(4)  The  greater  the  angle  made  by 
a  guy  and  the  mast,  the  less  is  the  strain 
on  the  mast  and  on  the  guy,  if  the  weight 
of  the  guy  itself  is  ignored.  This  angle 
of  the  guy  to  the  mast  does  not  affect 
the  strains  in  the  boom  and  topping  lift 
but  does  affect  the  pull  on  the  anchors. 
Types  of  Derricks.  The  principal 
types  of  derricks  used  in  the  erection  of 
steel  structures  are  pole  derricks,  or  gin 
poles;  builders'  or  house  derricks,  some- 
times called  setters'  and  breast  derricks; 
guy;  stiff-leg;  full-circle  stiff-leg;  com- 
bined stiff -leg  and  guy;  A  frame;  crane 
derricks;  and  tower  derricks. 

Pole  Derrick.  A  pole  derrick,  Fig.  7, 
more  often  called  a  gin  pole  by  the 
bridgemen,  is  merely  a  pole  or  single 
stick,  guyed  at  the  top  to  keep  it  from 
tipping  over,  with  some  kind  of  a  block 
or  a  sheave  fastened  at  the  top,  and  a  crab  or  a  snatch  block  fastened 
at  the  bottom,  the  purpose  of  the  snatch  block  being  to  lead  the 
hoisting  rope  to  the  hoisting  engine,  or  whatever  power  is  used.  This 
kind  of  a  derrick  is  light  and  can  be  erected  by  hand,  but  its  range 
of  action  in  one  place  is  limited  to  practically  one  lift,  and  if  moved, 
that  must  be  done  by  hand.  It  has  been  found  that  the  cost  of 


Fig.  7.     Typical  Pole  Derrick 


BUILDING  SUPERINTENDENCE 


49 


moving  as  compared  to  the  num- 
ber of  lifts  that  can  be  made  in 
a  day,  makes  this  derrick  an 
expensive  tool  for  setting  steel 
generally.  It  is,  however,  almost 
always  used  in  one  form  or  an- 
other in  the  setting-up  of  the 
larger  derricks,  as  it  can  be  put 
in  place  by  the  men  without  the 
use  of  other  power. 

Builders'  or  House  Derrick. 
A  builders'  or  house  derrick, 
Fig.  8,  sometimes  called  a  set- 
ters' derrick  and  also  breast  der- 
rick is  an  improvement  upon  the 
gin  pole.  It  needs  to  be  guyed 
in  two  directions  only,  front  and 
back,  the  derrick  being  stiff 
enough  to  brace  itself  sideways; 
the  gin  pole  should  have  at  least 
four  guys.  The  house  derrick  is 
somewhat  easier  to  move  than 
the  gin  pole,  as  it  can  be  rolled 
sideways  on  the  two  small  wheels 
fastened  to  the  sill.  Like  the  gin 
pole,  it  is  generally  light  and  can 
be  set  up  by  hand,  but  it  has  the 
same  limitations  as  the  other  in 
that  it  must  be  moved  practically 
each  time  a  new  lift  is  made.  The 
capacity  of  this  kind  of  derrick  is 
comparatively  small;  it  is  found 
mostly  on  the  smaller  jobs,  though 
it  is  useful  in  a  limited  way  on 
almost  every  job.  It  is  also  em- 
ployed in  setting  up  the  larger  der- 
ricks. Stone  setters,  however, 
make  more  use  of  it  than  steel  men. 


Fig.  8.     Builders'  or  House  Derrick 


Fig.  9.     Diagram  of  Guy  Derrick 


50  BUILDING  SUPERINTENDENCE 

Guy  Derrick.  The  guy  derrick,  Fig.  9,  is  composed  of  a 
mast  and  a  boom.  The  mast  is  held  upright  by  means  of  guys, 
from  four  to  eight  in  number,  made  of  ropes  or  steel  cables;  it  is 
pivoted  top  and  bottom,  which  allows  it  to  revolve.  The  boom 
is  fastened  to  the  mast  by  means  of  a  pin,  which  enables  it  to  take 
any  position  between  the  horizontal  and  the  vertical.  It  revolves 
with  the  mast.  It  will  therefore  be  seen  that  a  lift  can  be  made 
at  any  point  within  a  circle  which  has  for  its  radius  the  length  of 
the  boom,  without  changing  the  location  of  the  derrick.  The  boom 
should  never  be  allowed  to  drop  beyond  the  horizontal,  as  this 


* 


Fig.  10.      Bull  Wheel  Used  on  Derricks  for  Swinging  Boom 
Courtesy  of  Clyde  Iron  Works,  Duluth,  Minnesota 

tends  to  lift  the  mast  out  of  its  seat,  and  so  to  cripple  the  derrick. 
Many  a  serious  accident  has  resulted  from  this  cause.  The  guy 
derrick  is  a  common  style  used  by  steel  men.  It  will  cover  a  com- 
plete circle,  and  it  is  easy  to  raise  from  one  story  to  another,  without 
the  use  of  a  gin  pole  or  a  house  derrick.  To  do  this,  the  boom  is 
unshipped  from  the  mast  after  it  has  been  brought  to  a  vertical 
position;  it  is  then  lifted  by  means  of  the  mast  to  the  new  level, 
guyed  like  a  gin  pole,  and  used  to  lift  up  the  mast.  A  guy  derrick 
must  always  have  a  mast  at  least  ten  feet  longer  than  the  boom, 
in  order  that  the  boom  shall  go  under  the  guys.  The  great  draw- 
back to  the  use  of  this  style  of  derrick  on  a  building  is  usually  the 


BUILDING  SUPERINTENDENCE 


51 


difficulty  of  finding  spread  enough  for  anchoring  the  guys,  because, 
unless  the  guys  have  a  great  slant  or  spread,  it  is  necessary  to  top 
up  the  boom  each  time  it  is  desired  to  pass  a  guy.  It  is  almost 
always  found  that  the  extra  time  consumed  in  topping  up  and 
lowering  the  boom,  in  order  to  get  under  the  guys,  more  than  offsets 
its  advantage  of  easy  elevation. 

Bull  Wheels.  Bull  wheels,  Fig.  10,  are  used  on  guy  derricks 
and  on  other  styles  also,  in  order  that  the  derrick  may  be  slued 
by  the  same  engine  that  operates  the  hoisting  ropes.  A  bull  wheel 


Fig.  11.     Diagrammatic  Layout  of  Stiff-Leg  Derrick 

is  seldom  used  on  a  building  job,  however,  because  it  interferes 
somewhat  with  the  raising  of  the  derrick  from  one  floor  to  another. 

Stiff -Leg  Derrick.  The  stiff-leg  derrick,  Fig.  11,  is  probably 
the  most  common  one  used  today  as  it  has  several  advantages 
over  the  guy  derrick,  although  it  has  its  disadvantages  as  well. 
This  type  is  like  the  guy  derrick,  except  that  in  place  of  the  guys  it  has 
two  slanting  members  called  stiff  legs,  placed  at  right  angles  to 
one  another  to  keep  the  mast  in  an  upright  position.  The  stiff 
legs  are  subjected  to  both  tensile  and  compressive  strain,  depending 
on  the  position  of  the  boom. 

One  advantage  of  this  derrick  is  that  only  two  anchoring  places 
are  needed.  Another  is  that  the  boom  can  be  much  longer  than 


52  BUILDING  SUPERINTENDENCE 

the  mast,  sometimes  as  much  as  three  times  as  long  though  usually 
from  one  and  one-half  to  two  times  as  long.  It  can  cover  only 
three-fourths  of  a  circle  while  the  boom  is  loaded.  The  boom 
without  load  can  be  slung  in  behind  the  stiff  legs  by  lifting  one 
stiff  leg  while  the  boom  passes  by,  the  other  being  guyed  tem- 
porarily. This  is  often  done  wrhere  only  one  derrick  is  used,  but 
two  or  more  derricks  are  generally  needed,  in  which  case  they  are 
placed  so  as  to  help  each  other,  especially  in  moving  up  from  one 
story  to  another.  It  is  generally  found,  also,  that  on  account 


Fig.  12.     Plan  of  Layout  for  Two  Stiff -Leg  Derricks 


of  the  longer  boom  which  may  be  used,  as  much  area  can  be  covered 
as  by  a  guy  derrick,  if  not  more,  and  there  are  no  guys  to  interfere 
with  the  movement  of  the  boom. 

Where  the  job  is  large  enough  for  two  stiff-leg  derricks,  a  good 
arrangement  is  that  shown  in  Fig.  12.  It  will  be  noticed  that  a 
complete  circle  is  covered  by  the  two  derricks  and  because  of  the 
longer  booms  this  circle  is  larger  than  if  one  guy  derrick  were  used; 
consequently  the  work  can  go  on  much  more  than  twice  as  rapidly. 
The  derricks  are  in  such  position  that  they  can  lift  one  another 
up  from  level  to  level. 


BUILDING  SUPERINTENDENCE 


53 


Preventer  Guys.    Because  the  boom  is  longer  than  the  mast, 
it  can  readily  be  seen  that  as  the  boom  takes  a  nearly  vertical  posi- 


tion,  a  strain  is  exerted  tending  to  lift  the  mast.    Generally,  the 
fittings  of  the  derrick  are  not  designed  to  resist  this  strain  and 


54 


BUILDING  SUPERINTENDENCE 


unless  preventer  guys,  as  they  are  called,  are  used,  the  mast  is 
unshipped  from  its  seat  and  the  derrick  collapses.  These  preventer 
guys  are  ropes,  fastened  to  the  top  of  the  top  stiff  leg  and  to  the 
sill  below  the  seat  of  the  mast.  They  take  up  the  vertical  strain 
and  prevent  the  mast  from  leaving  the  seat.  The  superintendent 


Fig.  14.     Combined  Stiff-Leg  and  Guy  Derrick 
Courtesy  of  American  Hoist  and  Derrick  Company,  St.  Paul,  Minnesota 


should  always  insist  that  they  be  used,  as  the  lack  of  them  often 
causes  serious  accidents. 

Full-Circle  Stiff-Leg  Derrick.  This  type  of  derrick,  Fig.  13, 
and  the  combined  stiff-leg  and  guy  derricks,  Fig.  14,  are  mod- 
ifications of  the  stiff-leg  and  the  guy  derricks.  They  are  but  seldom 
used  in  steel  erection  and  only  where  special  conditions  make  them 
advantageous.  These  derricks  are  not  so  easily  erected  as  other 
derricks  and  therefore  are  usually  adopted  on  jobs  where  a  minimum 
of  moving  from  one  location  to  another  is  required  such  as  in  a 
storage  and  sorting  yard. 


5 

2s 


Ml    Gf 

S| 
I 


56 


BUILDING  SUPERINTENDENCE 


A-Frame  Derrick.  An  A-frame  derrick,  Fig.  15,  is  gen- 
erally adopted  where  a  derrick  is  needed  that  can  be  pushed  around 
and  easily  moved  horizontally.  It  is  almost  always  mounted 
with  the  hoisting  engine  on  a  flat  car  or  some  movable  platform. 
This  form  of  rig  is  well  adapted  to  jobs  in  which  the  steel  work 
is  not  very  high  but  covers  considerable  ground. 

Where  sufficient  width  of  room  is  available  and  where  a  traveler 
of  some  kind  is  needed,  two  stiff-leg  derricks,  Fig.  16,  fastened 
together  and  mounted  on  a  movable  platform  make  a  good  rig. 


Pails  on  which 
trawler 


Fig.    16.     Plan  of  Layout  for  Two  Stiff-Leg  Derricks  on  Movable  Platform 

Crane  Derrick.  A  crane  derrick,  Fig.  17,  is  composed  of 
a  mast  held  in  an  upright  position  by  guys  or  full-circle  stiff  legs. 
The  boom  is  fixed  permanently  to  the  mast  in  a  horizontal  position 
near  the  top.  On  the  boom  is  a  trolley  which  shifts  the  load  in 
the  horizontal  direction.  This  style  of  derrick  is  comparatively 
limited  in  capacity,  but  is  useful  where  a  large  number  of  light 
loads  have  to  be  handled.  It  requires  less  power  to  move  the 
loads  horizontally,  as  is  readily  seen,  for  the  trolley  can  be  moved 
more  quickly  and  with  less  effort  than  is  required  to  top  up  a  long 
boom  attached  to  a  guy  or  a  stiff-leg  derrick,  especially  when  this 


BUILDING  SUPERINTENDENCE 


57 


boom  is  loaded.  It  is  essential  that  a  crane  derrick  shall  have 
guys  of  large  spread  and  fastened  in  some  manner  so  that  the  boom 
can  clear  them  as  it  swings  past.  In  building  work  where  the  steel 
goes  up  to  some  height,  sometimes  a  trestle  work  or  a  tower  is 


Fig.  17.     Diagram  of  Crane  Derrick 


erected  first  and  a  crane  derrick  located  on  top  of  it.  In  this  way 
the  machine  needs  to  be  set  up  but  once  to  complete  the  part  of 
the  building  within  its  reach.  It  is  estimated  that  the  cost  of  the 
trestle  or  tower  upon  which  the  derrick  is  placed  is  more  than  offset 


58 


BUILDING  SUPERINTENDENCE 


by  the  saving  in  the  cost  of  the  several  lifts  of  the  derrick  which 
would  be  required  if  it  went  up  with  the  steel  structure. 


Fig.  18.      Tower  Derrick  Handling  Building  Work 
Courtesy  of  American  Hoist  and  Derrick  Company,  St.  Paul,  Minnesota 

Tower  Derrick.  Tower  derricks,  Fig.  18,  as  the  name  implies, 
are  fastened  to  a  tower  and  need  no  guys,  stiff  leg,  or  other  support 
to  keep  the  mast  in  an  upright  position.  Where  these  derricks 
are  used,  a  tower  must  be  built  ahead  of  the  structure.  The  derrick 


BUILDING  SUPERINTENDENCE  59 

is  either  moved  up  on  the  tower  as  the  structure  rises,  or  it  is  first 
placed  as  high  as  is  necessary  to  complete  the  part  of  the  structure 
within  its  reach.  This  form  is  seldom  used  except  on  jobs  where 


Fig.   19.       Typical  Cableway  Used  for  Log  Storage.    This  same  carrying  device  can  be 

applied  to  building  situations  where  location  of  any  type  of  derrick  is  not  feasible 

Courtesy  of  Clyde  Iron  Works,  Duluth,  Minnesota 

there  is  no  place  available  or  convenient  in  the  structure  on  which 
to  locate  a  guy  or  a  stiff-leg  derrick.  Some  contractors,  however, 
believe  that  a  tower  is  the  cheaper  method,  because  they  estimate 


60  BUILDING  SUPERINTENDENCE 

that  the  cost  of  its  construction  is  less  than  the  cost  of  raising  a 
stiff-leg  or  a  guy  derrick  several  times,  especially  when  the  tower 
is  designed  so  that  it  can  easily  be  taken  apart  and  used  on  other 
work,  and  the  first  cost  can  thus  be  divided  among  several  jobs. 
Tower  derricks  are  commonly  used  in  connection  with  the  travelers 
employed  in  the  erection  of  bridges. 

Cableways.  In  some  kinds  of  work  it  will  be  found  that  there 
is  no  feasible  way  of  setting  up  a  derrick  of  any  kind,  and  in  such 
a  case  some  sort  of  a  suspension  cableway  can  be  used  to  great 
advantage.  A  cableway,  Fig.  19,  is  composed  of  a  strong  steel 
cable  suspended  over  the  work  and  between  towers  which  may  be 
of  the  fixed,  semi-portable,  or  traveling  type.  The  load  is  moved 
along  the  cable  by  means  of  some  kind  of  a  trolley.  The  rapidity 
of  erection  with  a  cableway  is  usually  much  less  than  where  a  derrick 
is  used,  because  the  latter  can  make  so  many  more  moves  in  a  day 
than  can  the  former. 

Superintendent's  Authority  over  Equipment  and  Work 

Interference  with  Contractor  Ill=Advised.  The  superintendent 
ordinarily  has  little  authority  over  a  contractor's  equipment.  It 
will  usually  be  found  that  the  contractor  is  capable  of  selecting  a 
good  method  for  doing  his  work.  A  superintendent  has  no  right 
to  dictate  what  equipment  a  contractor  shall  use,  or  to  interfere 
in  any  way  in  the  matter,  unless  he  is  convinced  that  the  chosen 
equipment  is  positively  dangerous,  or  can  prove  that  it  is  insufficient 
to  perform  the  work  within  the  time  limit  mentioned  in  the  con- 
tract. It  is  usually  a  somewhat  delicate  matter  to  interfere  with 
the  methods  adopted  by  a  contractor,  and  for  this  reason  it  is  most 
essential  that  the  superintendent  shall  have  a  thorough  knowledge 
of  contractors'  equipment  in  general.  This  knowledge  will  enable 
him  to  stand  firm  and  to  prove  his  contention  in  any  case  where 
he  finds  it  necessary  to  interfere.  It  is  not  sufficient  reason  for 
interfering  that  the  superintendent  simply  thinks  he  has  a  better 
way  than  the  contractor;  the  contractor  may,  however,  welcome  a 
good  suggestion,  as  a  suggestion.  Only  when  the  superintendent 
is  convinced  that  the  equipment  is  positively  inadequate  to  perform 
the  work  properly  within  the  given  time,  is  he  justified  in  protesting. 
It  must  be  kept  in  mind  that  the  law  will  hold  in  a  great  majority 


BUILDING  SUPERINTENDENCE  6i 

of  cases  that  the  engineer  cannot  hold  a  contractor  responsible 
for  the  results,  nor  penalize  him  if  results  are  not  obtained  within 
the  required  time,  if  the  superintendent  at  the  same  time  has  dic- 
tated to  him  what  methods  he  should  employ.  If  the  engineer 
dictates  the  methods,  he  must  also  relieve  the  contractor  of  responsi- 
bility for  the  results.  It  is  not  generally  wise  to  dictate;  it  is  much 
better,  particularly  where  the  contractor  is  reasonably  capable, 
to  make  him  responsible  for  certain  results  and,  at  the  same  time 
to  leave  him  free  in  his  choice  of  the  methods.  In  this  connection, 
it  is  well  to  remember  that  the  contractor's  practical  training  makes 
him  generally  a  better  judge  than  the  superintendent  in  his  par- 
ticular field.  It  is  also  reasonable  to  consider  that  it  is  vitally 
to  the  contractor's  own  interest  to  select  the  best  and  safest  way. 
On  the  other  hand,  the  superintendent  may  be  called  upon  to  deal 
with  a  dishonest  contractor,  or  one  who  is  ignorant  regarding  certain 
parts  of  his  business;  in  that  case  the  superintendent  should  not 
hesitate  to  interfere  and  to  make  his  interference  felt. 

Honest  and  Dishonest  Contractors.  We  are  assuming,  how- 
ever, that  the  superintendent  is  called  upon  to  work  with  contractors 
who  are  competent,  reasonable,  and  honest.  In  most  cases  where 
the  engineer  or  superintendent  shows  these  characteristics,  the 
contractor  will  be  found  trying  to  do  what  is  right  according  to 
his  judgment.  It  is  good  policy  to  assume  that  a  contractor  or 
any  other  man  is  honest  until  proved  otherwise.  It  cannot,  how- 
ever, be  denied  that  there  are  men  in  the  contracting  business 
who  are  trying  to  make  money  by  dishonest  methods.  Whenever 
the  superintendent  comes  in  contact  with  such  a  man,  he  must 
take  especial  care  always  to  be  technically  correct,  because  there 
is  no  man  who  is  more  likely  to  take  advantage  of  a  superintendent's 
technical  mistakes  and  profit  by  them,  than  is  the  dishonest  con- 
tractor, especially  where  it  has  been  necessary  for  the  superintendent 
to  find  considerable  fault  with  the  work. 

Overloading  Structures.  In  addition  to  the  superintendent's 
duty  of  ascertaining  whether  or  not  the  contractor's  equipment 
is  adequate,  there  is  the  duty  of  seeing  that  the  structure  is  not 
overloaded.  In  the  rush  of  work,  steel  men  are  prone  to  overload 
some  portion  of  the  structure,  either  by  providing  insufficient  support 
for  their  equipment  or  by  piling  too  much  material  in  some  par- 


62  BUILDING  SUPERINTENDENCE 

ticular  part.  They  often  do  this  innocently,  not  realizing  the 
danger,  and  the  superintendent  generally  finds  that  only  a  word 
is  necessary  to  rectify  the  state  of  affairs.  He  must  always  insist, 
however,  that  it  be  corrected  without  delay. 

A  guy  derrick  should  have  good  support  under  the  shoe  of 
the  mast  and  ample  strength  in  the  places  where  anchors  are  to 
be  fastened.  The  stiff-leg  derrick  should  have  three  places  of  support, 
namely,  under  the  mast  and  under  each  of  the  ends  of  the  two  stiff 
legs,  these  last  two  supports  being  sufficient  to  withstand  not  only 
the  compression  strain  but  also  the  tension  strain  which  may  be 
placed  upon  the  stiff  legs,  depending  upon  the  position  of  the  boom. 

Hoisting  Engines.  Location.  The  hoisting  engine  should 
always  be  located  in  some  place  where  the  vibration  of  it  when  in 
action  is  not  transmitted  to  the  structure.  The  continued  vibration 
of  a  reciprocating  steam  engine,  air  compressor,  or  similar  machine 
puts  undue  strains  on  the  structure,  tending  to  make  the  operation 
unsafe.  To  save  the  structure  from  this  vibration  the  hoisting  engine 
is  left  in  the  basement  while  the  derricks  are  raised  with  the  structure. 

Bracing.  It  is  well  to  remember  that  the  hoisting  engine 
must  be  properly  braced  and  anchored,  otherwise  it  is  likely  to 
go  skidding  over  the  lot  when  an  attempt  is  made  to  pick  up  a 
load.  The  steel  men  are  not  often  negligent  in  this  matter  of  sup- 
ports and  anchors  for  the  engines,  but  nevertheless  the  superin- 
tendent should  not  overlook  the  inspection  of  them.  Supports 
and  anchors  should  always  be  placed  in  the  direction  opposite 
to  that  of  the  pull  of  the  hoisting  rope.  If  the  engine  is  located 
directly  under  a  derrick,  then  there  must  be  enough  weight  to  hold 
the  engine  down;  otherwise,  instead  of  lifting  the  load,  the  engine 
will  lift  itself.  The  superintendent  more  often  finds  that  the  steel 
men  forget  some  small  things,  such  as  a  few  rivets  in  the  connections 
of  the  beams  and  girders,  which  to  them  seem  insignificant.  Never- 
theless, there  is  little  use  in  providing  a  strong  and  expensive  derrick 
if  the  support  for  it  is  neglected,  even  in  the  little  items. 

Tackle 

Classification.  Tackle  comprises  the  cordage,  ropes,  cables, 
chains,  and  all  fastenings,  connections,  and  other  fittings,  also 
all  blocks,  pulleys,  and  sheaves,  which  are  required  in  the  work. 


BUILDING  SUPERINTENDENCE 

TABLE  I 
Specifications  for  Standard  Chains 


63 


SIZE 

CENTER  OF  ONE 

OUTSIDE 

AVERAGE  WEIGHT 

AVERAGE 

OF 

LINK  TO  CENTER 

LENGTH 

OF  CHAIN  PER 

SAFE  WORK- 

CHAIN 

OF  NEXT  LINK 

OF  LINK 

FOOT 

ING  LOAD 

(in.) 

(in.) 

(in.) 

(Ib.) 

(tons) 

\ 

in 

21 

2| 

From    2  to    3 

2^ 

4f 

10 

From    8  to  10 

U 

31 

7 

23 

From  19  to  22 

2 

5f 

10 

40 

From  32  to  36 

2| 

7 

12| 

65 

From  50  to  56 

3 

7f 

14 

86 

From  64  to  72 

There  is  nothing  in  all  the  contractor's  equipment  that  is  so 
often  deceptive  concerning  its  quality  and  condition  as  the  tackle. 
New-looking  rope  may  not  necessarily  mean  that  it  is  stronger 
than  other  rope  of  the  same  size  which  does  not  look  so  new,  for 
the  strength  of  the  rope  depends  upon  what  it  is  made  of,  how 
old  it  is,  and  how  it  has  been  kept. 

Chains.  Chains,  the  least  dependable  part  of  tackle,  are 
considered  treacherous  by  some  men.  No  chain,  unless  it  has  been 
made  by  a  capable  and  reliable  manufacturer,  and  has  been  properly 
tested,  should  ever  be  permitted  upon  an  erection  job.  It  will 
be  seen  that  because  of  the  way  a  chain  is  made — each  link  welded 
separately,  usually  by  hand — that  it  is  difficult  to  get  uniformity 
in  the  strength  of  the  different  links.  The  strength  of  the  chain 
depends  upon  the  quality  of  the  iron,  its  composition,  the  degree 
to  which  the  iron  has  been  heated  (iron  that  has  been  burned  is 
weakened),  what  the  temperature  was  during  the  process  of  welding, 
and  how  carefully  the  welding  is  done — all  of  which  may  vary  in 
degree,  thus  affecting  the  strength  of  the  finished  chain. 

No  chain  should  be  expected  to  do  more  than  it  was  designed 
for.  Every  time  a  chain  is  overloaded  beyond  a  certain  limit, 
it  is  weakened. 

All  chains  in  actual  use  are  subject  to  deterioration,  apparent 
and  invisible;  the  apparent  being  the  wear  of  the  links  where  they 
come  in  contact  with  each  other  or  with  other  things,  the  invisible 
being  an  alteration  in  the  nature  of  the  material  or  of  its  fiber, 
caused  by  shocks,  strain,  and  frost,  which  produces  crystallization. 
This  crystallization  can  be  remedied  by  frequent  annealing,  which 


64 


BUILDING  SUPERINTENDENCE 


TABLE  II 
Weight  and  Strength  of  Manila  and  Sisal  Ropes 


DIAMETER 
OF  ROPE 

/:_  \ 

LENGTH  OF  ROPE 
WEIGHING  ONE 
POUND 

AVERAGE  STRENGTH 
OF  NEW  MANILA 
ROPE 

AVERAGE  STRENGTH 
OF  NEW  SISAL 
ROPE 

(ll\.) 

(ft.  or  in.) 

(lb.) 

Ob.) 

\ 

13|  ft. 

2000 

1400 

f 

6  ft, 

4000 

2800 

4  ft. 

6000 

4200 

1 

3|ft. 

7000 

5000 

H 

26  in. 

11000 

8000 

U 

18  in. 

16000 

11500 

if 

12  in. 

22000 

16000 

2 

10  in. 

28000 

20000 

is  done  by  heating  the  chain  to  a  cherry  red  and  allowing  it  to  cool 
slowly.  A  chain  should  be  annealed  at  least  twice  a  year. 

The  size  of  a  chain  is  that  of  the  diameter  of  the  iron  out  of 
which  the  chain  is  made.  Table  I  gives  some  of  the  characteristics 
of  chains. 

Cordage.  Cordage  is  made  principally  out  of  the  various 
grades  of  hemp,  jute,  sisal,  and  cotton,  all  of  which  are  fibers  from 
different  fibrous  plants. 

Manila  Hemp.  The  strongest  rope  is  the  Manila  rope,  made 
from  the  best  quality  of  Manila  hemp,  a  product  of  the  Philippine 
Islands.  There  are  on  the  market  from  twenty  to  thirty  different 
grades  of  Manila  hemp  varying  from  a  specially  fine  grade  of  long, 
clean,  white,  strong  fibers,  to  an  inferior  grade  with  short,  dark 
fibers.  Cheap  rope  has  short  fiber  and  heavy  weight;  often  weight- 
making  adulterants  are  added. 

Real  Hemp.  Real  hemp  is  a  native  of  central  and  western 
Asia,  but  is  extensively  cultivated  in  many  countries.  There 
are  various  plants  which  have  fibers  of  similar  nature  and  which 
are  called  hemp  but  which  in  reality  are  plants  of  other  genera. 
Manila  hemp  is  not  a  real  hemp,  as  it  comes  from  one  species  of 
the  musa  plant,  another  species  of  which  is  the  banana  plant. 

Jute.  Jute  comes  from  a  plant  called  Jews'  mallow,  is  a  native 
of  Bengal  where  most  of  the  jute  used  in  commerce  is  produced. 
It  is  of  inferior  value  for  ropes  for  it  does  not  stand  moisture  well. 

Sisal.  Sisal  comes  from  sisal  grass,  sometimes  called  sisal 
hemp,  which  is  obtained  principally  from  the  agave  plant,  a  native 


BUILDING  SUPERINTENDENCE  60 

of  Yucatan.  Rope  made  from  this  fiber  weighs  about  the  same 
as  Manila,  but  is  only  about  five-sevenths  as  strong.  It  resists 
dampness,  however,  better  than  hemp  and  is  stiffer  than  Manila, 
and  for  that  reason  is  sometimes  preferred.  Table  II  gives  various 
facts  relative  to  the  weight  and  strength  of  Manila  and  sisal  ropes. 

Cotton  Rope.  Cotton  rope  is  seldom  used  by  steel  setters 
except  in  the  small  sizes,  for  signal  ropes,  etc. 

Wire  Rope.  There  are  many  different  kinds  of  wire  rope, 
varying  in  quality  of  material,  lays  and  number  of  strands,  and 
twists  and  number  of  wires  in  the  strands.  Only  that  kind  of  wire 
rope  adapted  to  the  work  it  has  to  perform  should  be  used.  It  is 
false  economy  to  use  cheap  rope  for  such  purposes  as  hoisting, 
because  the  cheaper  rope  has  to  be  replaced  so  often  that  the  total 
cost  equals  the  cost  of  the  best  grade.  A  wire  rope  may  be  made 
of  114  wires,  but  if  one  of  these  wires  becomes  broken,  the  rope  is 
unsafe  for  further  use  in  connection  with  pulleys,  sheaves,  and  blocks, 
as  the  broken  strand  may  unravel  and  rap  itself  around  the  sheave. 
If  the  wire  happens  to  entangle  itself  in  the  sheave  or  block,  and 
the  power  is  not  shut  off  promptly,  there  is  great  danger  that  the 
block  or  sheave  will  be  torn  from  its  support  and  drop  the  load. 

Wire  rope  is  usually  made  with  a  hemp  center.  This  center, 
essential  to  the  pliability  of  the  rope,  acts  as  a  cushion  around  which 
are  laid  the  strands.  Where  the  rope  is  to  be  used  without  bending, 
or  is  not  to  be  moved  from  one  location  to  another,  rope  with  a 
wire  center  is  sometimes  used. 

Wire  rope  is  usually  made  of  6  strands,  which  in  turn  are  com- 
posed of  7,  9,  12,  19,  or  37  wires,  each,  a  finished  rope  having,  thus, 
42,  54,  73,  114,  or  222  wires. 

Ropes  made  of  6  strands,  each  strand  of  19  wires,  are  best 
adapted  for  hoisting  purposes.  Those  made  of  G  strands,  each 
strand  of  7  or  12  wires,  are  best  adapted  for  guys,  rigging,  and 
straight  haulage  purposes. 

As  usually  constructed,  the  wires  in  the  strand  are  laid  or 
twisted  in  one  direction,  while  the  strands  composing  the  rope  are 
laid  in  the  opposite  direction.  Where  the  rope  will  probably  be 
subjected  to  great  crushing  force  or  pressure,  one  constructed  with 
the  wires  in  the  strands  laid  in  the  same  direction  as  the  strands 
themselves  will  wear  longer. 


66 


BUILDING  SUPERINTENDENCE 


TABLE  III 
Specifications  for  6  x  19  Hemp-Center  Wire  Hoisting  Rope 


MINIMUM 

PROPER  LOAD  FOR  DIFFERENT  GRADES  OP  WIRE 

DIAMETER 

WEIGHT 

DIAMETER 

(lb.) 

OF  R.OPE 

PER  FOOT 

OF  DRUM 

(in.) 

OR  SHEAVE 
ADVISED 
(in.) 

Patent 
Steel 

Plow 
Steel 

Special 
Steel 

Crucible 
Cast 
Steel 

Swedish 
Iron 

I7 

0.22 

12 

2800 

2620 

2200 

2000 

1000 

r7 

0.30 

15 

4000 

3540 

3000 

2720 

1360 

0.39 

18 

5500 

4560 

3800 

3520 

1760 

& 

0.50 

21 

6000 

5800 

4600 

4400 

2200 

F 

0.62 

27 

8000 

7200 

5700 

5420 

2720 

i 

4 

0.89 

36 

12000 

10000 

8200 

7760 

3980 

1.20 

42 

14400 

13600 

11000 

10400 

5200 

1 

1.58 

48 

20000 

17600 

14000 

13600 

6800 

ji 

2.00 

54 

25200 

22400 

17000 

16800 

8400 

ji 

2.45 

60 

30400 

26800 

21200 

20000 

10000 

If 

3.00 

66 

38000 

32800 

25600 

24800 

12400 

li 

3.55 

69 

46000 

38400 

29200 

28800 

14400 

2 

6.30 

96 

80000 

66000 

52000 

49600 

24800 

Wire  rope  should  not  be  run  over  too  small  sheaves,  for  these 
tend  to  break  the  strands  and  increase  materially  the  wear  on  the 
rope.  It  wears  out  faster  when  run  at  great  speed,  and  therefore 
should  be  replaced  more  often  when  the  speed  is  high. 

Deterioration  in  wire  rope  is  more  often  caused  by  rust  than 
by  the  wear  of  constant  use.  To  preserve  it  properly  it  should  be 
kept  well  lubricated  with  a  proper  lubricant — one  which  will  pene- 
trate between  the  wires,  prevent  friction  between  them,  and  cover 
them  so  as  to  prevent  corrosion  from  moisture. 

Use  of  Galvanized  Rope.  Sometimes  as  a  preventive  against 
rust,  the  rope  is  made  up  of  galvanized  wires,  but  this  kind  of  rope 
should  never  be  used  for  running  ropes — that  is,  for  ropes  that  pass 
through  pulleys  and  blocks — as  the  coating  of  zinc  wears  off  very 
quickly,  after  which  the  rope  rusts  with  great  rapidity.  It  has  also 
been  discovered  that  in  the  process  of  galvanizing,  the  steel  in 
the  wire  is  likely  to  be  burned,  which  materially  weakens  the  rope. 
It  is  better  to  keep  the  rope  saturated  with  a  good  lubricant. 

Kinds  and  Strength  of  Wire  Rope.  The  different  materials 
commonly  used  in  the  construction  of  wire  rope  are  patent,  plow, 
special,  crucible  cast  steel,  and  Swedish  iron.  Table  III  gives 
the  proper  working  loads  on  hoisting  wire  ropes  of  various  kinds, 
and  Table  IV  the  safe  loads  on  standing  wire  ropes. 


BUILDING  SUPERINTENDENCE 


67 


TABLE  IV 
Specifications  for  6  x  7  Hemp-Center  Wire  Standing  Rope 


PROPER  LOAD  FOR  DIFFERENT  GRADES  OF  WIRE 

DIAMETER 

AVERAGE 

Ob.) 

OIP 

1^  EIGHT 

ROPE 
(in.) 

PER  FOOT 
(lb.) 

Patent 
Steel 

Plow 
Steel 

Special 
Steel 

Crucible 

Cast  Steel 

Swedish 
Iron 

i 

0.22 

2700 

2540 

2100 

1920 

960 

A 

0.30 

3600 

3420 

2800 

2640 

1320 

1 

0.39 

4600 

4400 

3600 

3360 

1620 

0.50 

5800 

5600 

4400 

4240 

2120 

1 

0.62 

7000 

6800 

5800 

5280 

2640 

ii 

0.75 

8600 

8400 

6600 

6320 

3160 

1 

0.89 

9900 

9600 

8400 

7440 

3720 

i 

1.20 

13000 

12800 

11200 

9600 

4800 

i 

1.58 

17000 

16800 

14000 

12800 

6400 

U 

2.00 

22000 

21200 

17200 

16000 

8000 

i| 

2.45 

26000 

25600 

21600 

19200 

9600 

3.00 

32000 

31200 

25200 

23200 

11600 

if 

3.55 

37000 

36400 

29200 

27200 

13600 

Splices.  Wire  rope  can  be  spliced  so  as  to  make  the  splice 
imperceptible.  The  diameter  will  not  be  altered  nor  the  strength 
materially  decreased.  A  smoother  and  better  splice  can  be  made 
in  wire  rope  than  in  Manila  rope.  The  splices  for  running  rope 
are  all  of  the  kind  known  as  the  long  splice,  and  should  be  at  least 
twenty  feet  in  length. 

Kinks.  Wire  rope  should  never  be  coiled  like  hemp  rope; 
it  should  always  be  kept  on  a  reel  or  a  drum  of  some  sort.  When 
not  on  a  reel  it  should  be  rolled  on  the  ground  like  a  wheel  or  a 
hoop  to  prevent  kinking  or  twisting.  Great  care  should  be  exercised 
to  see  that  wire  rope  is  never  kinked  as  this  breaks  the  wire  and  so 
destroys  the  strength  of  the  rope.  Kinking,  while  not  uncommon, 
is  a  consequence  of  carelessness  and  rush  work,  and  can  be  easily 
avoided  by  a  little  watchfulness. 

Engines,  Power,  Etc. 

Kinds  of  Power.  Steam  and  electric  power  are  used  most 
often  in  the  erection  of  steel  structures;  gasoline  and  compressed 
air  are  rarely  used. 

Size  of  Engine.  To  determine  the  size  of  a  steam  engine 
required  on  a  given  piece  of  work,  first  determine  the  proper  size 
of  the  hoisting  cable  or  rope  and  select  an  engine  that  is  slightly 
larger  in  capacity  than  the  working  load  to  be  put  on  the  cable  or 


68  BUILDING  SUPERINTENDENCE 

rope,  "single  part".  In  selecting  the  size  of  hoisting  rope,  divide 
the  load  to  be  lifted  by  the  number  of  parts  of  rope  used  in  connection 
with  the  blocks.  That  is,  if  a  f-inch  patent  steel  cable  designed 
for  a  working  load  of  8,000  pounds  is  used  running  through  a  single 
and  a  double  block,  thus  making  four  parts,  the  load  to  be  picked 
up  should  not  be  over  32,000  pounds  and  the  engine  should  be 


Fig.  20.     Steam  Hoist  Adapted  to  Building  Construction 
Courtesy  of  Lidgerwood  Manufacturing  Company,  New  York  City 

of  a  capacity  to  pull  at  normal  speeds  about  8,500  or  9,000  pounds 
on  a  single  line.  This  means  that  a  steam  hoisting  engine  with 
two  9-  by  12-inch  cylinders,  commonly  rated  as  a  40-horsepower 
engine,  will  be  required.  If  the  40-horsepower  engine  and  f-inch 
cable  be  used  in  connection  with  two  double  blocks,  thus  making 
five  parts,  a  load  of  40,000  pounds  can  be  lifted;  if  used  in  connection 
with  a  double  and  a  triple  block,  thus  making  six  parts,  a  load  of 


BUILDING  SUPERINTENDENCE  69 

48,000  pounds  can  be  picked  up;  and  finally,  with  two  triple  blocks, 
thus  making  seven  parts,  a  load  of  56,000  pounds  can  be  lifted. 

Type  of  Engine.  The  hoisting  engines  most  commonly  found 
on  a  steel-setting  job  are  made  with  two  hoisting  drums — one 
to  operate  the  topping  lift  of  the  derrick  and  the  other  to  operate 
the  fall  that  picks  up  the  load — together  with  a  reversible  drum 
to  operate  the  boom-swinging  mechanism  on  the  derrick.  These 
drums  are  connected  to  the  engine  through  strong  frictions,  also 
held  by  powerful  brakes.  This  arrangement  allows  one  drum  to 


Fig.  21.      Electrically  Operated  Builders'  Hoist 
Courtesy  of  Lidgerwood  Manufacturing  Company,  New  York  City 

be  used  while  the  other  is  idle  or  holding  the  load,  and  vice  versa. 
A  standard  type  of  steam  hoist  is  shown  in  Fig.  20. 

Steam  vs.  Electric  Hoists.  The  distinction  between  a  steam 
and  an  electric  hoisting  engine  is  that  of  the  kind  of  power  used  in 
operating  the  drums.  In  choosing  an  electric  hoist  to  do  the  same 
work  as  a  steam  hoist,  the  motor  selected  should  have  a  capacity 
at  least  50  per  cent  greater  than  that  of  the  steam  engine.  This 
is  because  of  the  different  natures  of  the  power.  In  the  steam 
engine,  the  power  is  primarily  produced  by  the  expansive  energy 


70  BUILDING  SUPERINTENDENCE 

in  the  steam,  while  in  the  electric  engine,  the  current  energy  is 
exerted  to  revolve  an  armature.  The  faster  any  engine  moves, 
other  conditions  remaining  the  same,  the  more  power  it  exerts. 
With  a  steam  engine  it  is  possible  to  reduce  the  speed  of  the  drum, 
although  increasing  the  pressure  of  the  steam,  and  yet  exert  the 
same  amount  of  power  as  would  be  exerted  if  the  engine  were  running 
at  a  higher  speed  but  with  less  pressure.  The  faster  the  armature 
in  a  motor  moves,  other  conditions  remaining  the  same,  the  more 
power  the  motor  produces.  It  will  be  easily  seen  that  in  setting 
steel,  the  speed  of  the  hoist  must  be  varied  from  slow  to  fast,  and 
vice  versa.  The  speed  of  the  steam  engine  is  regulated  by  the 
amount  of  steam  rthat  is  let  into  the  cylinders,  while  the  speed  of 
the  electric  motor  is  regulated  by  means  of  a  resistance  box  which 
takes  more  or  less  of  the  energy  in  the  current  away  from  the  motor 
itself.  The  greater  the  current  that  is  sent  through  the  resistance 
coils,  the  more  slowly  the  hoist  moves  but  also  the  less  power  it 
exerts.  It  is  to  overcome  this  loss  of  power  in  the  slow  speeds 
that  larger-sized  motors  are  required.  The  same  effect  is  sometimes 
obtained  by  using  interpole  motors  and  special  controllers  by  which 
the  torque  of  the  armature  can  be  increased  about  50  per  cent  at 
slow  speeds. 

Advantages  of  Electric  Hoists.  There  are  several  advantages 
which  the  electric  hoist  has  over  the  steam,  which  offset  the  disad- 
vantage mentioned  above.  Some  of  these  advantages  are  as  follows: 
The  electric  hoist  consumes  nothing  when  it  is  idle;  the  cost  of 
maintenance  is  less;  it  is  ready  to  start  at  any  time;  there  is  no  freezing 
of  water  in  the  winter  time;  there  is  no  delay  of  work  to  raise  steam; 
there  is  much  less  danger  of  fire  and  none  from  explosions;  it  makes 
no  smoke,  a  great  advantage  in  work  where  the  smoke  would  injure 
the  finished  work.  An  electric  hoist  is  shown  in  Fig.  21. 

Hand  Powers.  Where  speed  is  not  essential,  and  on  small 
jobs  where  the  expense  of  setting  up  a  hoisting  engine  is  relatively 
large,  hand  powers,  sometimes  called  crabs,  and  hand-operated 
winches  are  used.  These  are  implements  made  in  a  great  variety 
of  shapes,  sizes,  and  capacities,  which  increase  the  lifting  capacity 
of  a  man  or  of  several  men  by  means  of  a  system  of  gears  operated 
by  winch  handles.  They  can  be  bought  from  implement  houses 
out  of  stock,  with  lifting  capacities  on  single  line  up  to  10,000  pounds; 


BUILDING  SUPERINTENDENCE  71 

but,  of  course,  the  greater  the  load  which  these  machines  pick  up, 
the  slower  the  speed  of  the  cable. 

Loads.  It  is  a  good  practice  often  of  use  in  the  rush  of  the 
work,  for  the  superintendent  to  fix  in  his  mind  how  much  steel  it 
takes  to  make  a  ton.  He  should  have  mental  "short  cuts"  and  prac- 
tice them  so  that  he  can,  by  looking  at  a  load  being  lifted,  tell  very 
closely  how  much  it  weighs.  It  is  easy  to  remember  the  following 
rough  estimates  of  what  constitutes  a  ton:  a  little  over  4  cubic 
feet  of  steel;  80  lineal  feet,  or  five  10-inch  I-beams  16  feet  long, 
and  60  lineal  feet,  or  four  light  12-inch  I-beams  15  feet  long. 

Tackle  Blocks,  Shackles,  Hooks,  and  Wire=Rope  Fastenings. 
Everyone  of  these  items  should  be  carefully  designed  and  considered 
for  strength,  quality,  and  condition.  As  stated  before,  all  the 
preparation  for  a  strong  derrick,  a  strong  engine,  and  a  strong  rope 
is  of  little  avail  or  of  no  avail  if  any  one  of  the  small  details — a 
block,  a  shackle,  a  hook,  or  one  of  the  fastenings — is  not  strong 
enough  to  carry  the  load  that  the  large  things  carry. 

Cheap  blocks,  cheap  shackles,  and  cheap  hooks  should  never 
be  used.  They  are  false  economy,  especially  in  these  days  when 
the  responsibility  for  accidents,  so  often  causing  loss  of  life,  falls 
upon  the  owners  of  the  defective  machinery.  Great  care  should  be 
taken  to  purchase  only  the  best  of  all  these  small  parts. 

Tackle  blocks  used  by  steel  setters  should  be  made  of  steel. 
They  should  have  sheaves  of  a  diameter  large  enough  to  prevent 
undue  wear  of  the  cable  or  rope.  The  pins  of  the  sheaves  should 
be  of  size  sufficient  to  carry  the  load  and  should  be  fitted  with  self- 
lubricating  bronze  bushings.  These  blocks  should  have  straps 
as  well  as  shackles  and  hooks  of  strength  ample  to  sustain  the  load 
without  breaking;  especially  should  the  swivel  hook  on  a  block 
be  considered,  as  this  one  part  is  often  the  weakest  point  of  the 
whole  rig.  All  of  the  other  small  items  should  be  gone  over  and 
the  details  carefully  considered,  with  the  object  of  seeing  that  they 
are  strong  enough  to  perform  as  much  work  as  the  balance  of  the 
rig,  if  not  more. 

Lines  and  Levels  and  How  to  Establish  Them 

Importance  of  Correct  Location.  The  establishment  of  the 
lines  and  levels  of  a  structure  is  one  of  the  most  important  phases 
of  the  work.  The  superintendent  is  not  often  called  upon  to  do 


72  BUILDING  SUPERINTENDENCE 

the  work  of  first  locating  these  lines  and  levels,  but  he  should  always 
carefully  check  the  locations  after  they  have  been  established  by 
other  parties.  Steel  structures  are  generally  built  upon  land  that 
is  comparatively  valuable,  where  the  owner  must  cover  his  entire 
lot,  but  where  encroachment  on  his  next-door  neighbor's  property 
may  occasion  great  loss  of  time  and  money.  It  is  therefore  a  vital 
matter  that  the  utmost  caution  be  exercised  in  the  location  of  the 
structure.  There  have  been  cases  where  the  owner  of  a  building 
has  lost  his  entire  fortune  through  the  erecting  of  a  portion  of  his 
building  on  another  person's  property. 

Employment  of  Licensed  Surveyor.  It  is  often  expensive 
to  correct  a  mistake  in  location  unless  the  error  is  discovered  early. 
To  insure  the  owner  against  loss  incurred  thereby,  it  is  customary 
for  him  to  employ  a  licensed  surveyor  to  establish  the  lot  lines  and 
principal  levels.  The  surveyor  can  be  held  accountable  for  his 
mistakes  and  be  made  to  pay  for  the  expense  of  their  correction. 

Superintendent's  Check  on  Lines  and  Levels.  After  the  marks 
have  been  placed  convenient  for  reference,  and  after  the  surveyor 
has  provided  the  contractor  with  a  plat  showing  where  these  marks 
are  to  be  found,  the  contractor  locates  the  intermediate  lines  and 
levels.  It  is  the  superintendent's  duty  to  check  all  of  the  measure- 
ments, lines,  and  levels  which  the  contractor  has  made,  with  the 
marks  that  are  placed  by  the  surveyor  and  also  with  the  drawings, 
to  see  that  no  mistake  has  been  made. 

In  establishing  and  in  checking  lines  and  levels,  both  the  con- 
tractor and  the  superintendent  should  use  a  surveyor's  transit 
and  a  surveyor's  level,  both  of  which  should  be  of  first-class  work- 
manship. It  is  a  risk  to  do  this  work  with  anything  but  accurate 
instruments.  The  transit  should  be  frequently  tested  for  vertical 
alignment,  as  many  sights  must  be  made  with  the  telescope  pointing 
up  or  down. 

Preserving  Marks.  The  most  important  lines  to  mark  are 
the  boundary  lines  of  the  property.  These  should  be  permanently 
marked  in  places  which  are  not  likely  to  be  disturbed  during  the 
building  operations.  There  are  various  ways  of  preserving  these 
marks:  they  can  be  cut  into  adjacent  buildings  by  means  of  a  cold 
chisel,  or  upon  sidewalks,  curbs,  street-car  tracks,  or  other  con- 
venient places;  they  may  also  be  preserved  by  means  of  iron  stakes, 


BUILDING  SUPERINTENDENCE 


73 


wooden  pegs,  or  batter  boards.     All  interior  lines  should  be  estab- 
lished with  reference  to  the  boundary  lines. 

Locating  Foundations.  An  experienced  contractor  exercises 
great  care  in  locating  the  foundations  accurately,  both  as  to  height 
and  horizontal  location.  He  knows  that  the  more  accurate  the 
work  is  here,  the  less  trouble  and  expense  he  will  have  in  setting  the 
steel  above.  In  a  tall  building,  the  other  parts  of  the  work,  such 
as  walls,  partitions,  elevators,  and  stairs,  are  all  placed  with  reference 
to  the  steel  skeleton.  Therefore,  if  the  steel  skeleton  is  not  properly 


Fig.  22. .    Layout  for  Locating  Marks  in  Setting  Foundation  Shoes 

located,  much  trouble  is  experienced  in  making  not  only  the  steel 
but  the  other  parts  of  the  work  fit  together  properly. 

Setting  Foundation  Shoes.  On  top  of  the  foundation  are 
generally  set  shoes  of  some  kind  on  which  the  columns  rest  directly. 
If  these  are  accurately  placed,  it  is  reasonable  to  suppose  that  the 
balance  of  the  structure  will  be  properly  located.  They  are  of 
two  general  types — those  that  are  secured  in  place  by  means  of 
anchor  bolts  into  the  masonry  below,  and  those  which  rest  directly 
upon  the  masonry,  being  held  in  place  by  their  own  weight  and  by 


74  BUILDING  SUPERINTENDENCE 

the  cement  grout  poured  in  between  the  masonry  and  the  bottom 
of  the  shoes. 

The  following  is  a  good  method  of  setting  foundation  shoes. 
By  means  of  a  transit,  points  intersecting  the  center  lines  of  each 
foundation  are  marked  on  the  four  sides  of  the  foundation,  and 
close  to  it.  These  marks  are  located  on  batter  boards,  or  something 
stable,  about  one  foot  above  the  top  of  the  shoe,  Fig.  22.  From 
these  points  are  stretched  and  securely  fastened,  cords  or  mason's 
lines  indicating  the  center  lines  of  the  foundation  in  both  directions 
parallel  to  the  edges  of  the  shoes.  In  the  meantime,  the  correspond- 
ing center  lines  are  marked  on  the  top  of  the  shoe.  If  anchor  bolts 
are  being  located,  a  wooden  template  is  made  with  holes  in  it  for 
the  bolts  and  the  center  lines  marked  on  the  template  instead  of 
on  the  shoe.  Then  the  shoe,  or  template,  is  moved  from  side  to 
side  until  the  center  lines  marked  on  either  are  exactly  under  the 
center  lilies  marked  by  the  cords,  this  condition  being  determined 
by  the  use  of  one  or  more  plumb  bobs  dropped  from  the  cords. 

Setting  Shoe  at  Proper  Height.  The  shoe  is  set  at  its  proper 
height  by  the  following  method:  A  wooden  stake  is  driven  as  close 
as  can  be  to  each  foundation  in  a  place  where  it  will  not  be  disturbed, 
and  by  means  of  a  surveyor's  level  the  top  of  the  stake  is  set  at 
the  level  which  the  top  or,  if  more  convenient,  the  bottom  of  the 
shoe,  is  to  have.  When  the  masonry  foundation  or  the  steel  grillage 
below  the  shoe  is  built,  it  will  be  left  with  its  top  one  or  two  inches 
below  the  bottom  of  the  shoe  in  its  permanent  position. 

Anchor  bolts,  if  used,  are  first  located,  by  means  of  a  straight- 
edge and  hand  level,  at  the  right  height  with  reference  to  the  above- 
mentioned  stake.  In  the  same  way — that  is,  by  means  of  the 
straightedge,  hand  level,  and  stake — two  thin  narrow  strips  of 
wood  or  steel  are  located  and  bedded  in  mortar  on  top  of  the  masonry, 
so  that  the  tops  of  the  strips  are  level  and  at  the  elevation  of  the 
bottom  of  the  shoe.  After  the  mortar  holding  the  strips  has  hardened 
the  shoe  is  placed  on  them  and  requires  no  additional  leveling. 
This  method  saves  much  time  and  patience  because,  while  it  is 
comparatively  easy  to  locate  the  shoe  either  horizontally  or  ver- 
tically, it  is  more  often  difficult  to  locate  it  in  both  directions  at 
the  same  time. 

Where  the  strips  are  objectionable,  four  steel  wedges  may  be 


BUILDING  SUPERINTENDENCE  75 

used,  one  under  each  corner  of  the  shoe  to  raise  or  lower  it  to  its 
right  location,  but  this  method  is  not  so  satisfactory  as  the  use  of 
the  strips.  The  top  of  the  shoe  must  in  all  cases  be  turned  or 
accurately  milled  in  a  lathe  and  be  set  absolutely  level.  If  not, 
the  column  above  will  rest  unevenly  on  the  shoe,  thus  putting  strains 
on  the  shoe  that  may  cripple  it. 

Locating  Grillage  Beams.  When  grillage  beams  are  to  be  placed, 
the  method  just  described  may  be  followed  in  locating  them. 
Grillage  beams  are  usually  fastened  together  with  separators  and 
bolts.  Unless  the  beams  are  very  heavy,  it  is  well  to  fasten  them 
together  before  placing  them  in  their  permanent  positions. 

Grouting  Shoes.  After  the  grillage  beams  and  shoes  have 
been  properly  located  and  the  location  checked  by  the  superin- 
tendent, strong  rich  cement  grout  should  be  forced  into  all  of  the 
spaces  between  the  beams,  shoes,  and  masonry,  so  as  to  make  a 
solid,  homogeneous  foundation.  Care  should  be  exercised  to  see  that 
no  load  is  placed  upon  the  shoe  until  after  this  grout  is  fully  set. 

Foundations 

The  determination  of  the  kind  of  foundation  best  suited  and 
most  economical  for  any  job  is  so  largely  a  matter  of  good  judgment 
and  experience  that  only  a  few  general  suggestions  are  offered  as 
guides  in  solving  the  problems  as  they  arise. 

Soil.  Examination.  The  superintendent  is  called  upon  not 
only  to  see  that  the  foundation  design  is  carefully  carried  out  and 
the  workmanship  and  materials  of  proper  quality,  but  also  to  examine 
the  soil  or  other  material  on  which  the  foundations  are  to  be  built, 
and  to  determine  correctly  whether  or  not  this  soil  or  other  material 
has  sufficient  bearing  power  to  carry  the  load  to  be  placed  upon  it 
by  the  foundations  as  designed.  The  designing  engineer's  informa- 
tion concerning  the  nature  and  character  of  the  materials  lying 
below  the  surface  at  the  site  of  the  building,  may  have  been  sufficient 
neither  in  amount  nor  in  accuracy  to  enable  him  to  make  a  design 
adequate  to  the  work.  Test  borings  may  be  made,  but  these  are 
very  often  unsatisfactory,  and  only  when  the  foundation  hole  has 
been  opened  so  as  to  allow  a  close  inspection  of  the  material  can 
accurate  knowledge  of  the  soil  be  obtained. 

Bearing  Capacity.  Natural  materials  vary  greatly  in  their 
ability  to  sustain  loads  placed  upon  them.  These  materials  range 


76  BUILDING  SUPERINTENDENCE 

from  quicksand,  marshy  ground,  mud,  dry  sand,  gravel,  clayey 
soils,  shale,  and  rotten  rock,  to  hard,  compact  rock  in  its  natural  bed. 

After  the  soil  has  been  exposed,  the  first  thing  to  determine 
is  its  bearing  power.  It  may  be  that  from  past  experience  and 
past  tests  of  materials  similar  to  that  under  consideration  the  safe 
bearing  power  can  be  correctly  decided  upon  without  further  investi- 
gation. If  any  doubt  should  exist  regarding  it,  however,  especially 
where  the  loads  of  the  structure  are  to  be  great,  accurate  tests 
should  be  made.  These  tests  can  be  made  by  placing  a  box  about 
two  feet  square  on  the  material  to  be  tested,  and  loading  it  until 
settlement  is  observed,  keeping  a  record  of  the  loads  placed  and  the 
corresponding  settlements. 

In  common  practice  it  is  considered  that  ordinary  soils  safely 
sustain  loads  from  2  to  4  tons  per  square  foot  without  settlement; 
that  soft  and  treacherous  soils  carry  not  over  1  ton  per  square 
foot,  probably  less;  while  for  rock,  loads  up  to  50  tons  per  square 
foot  may  be  imposed  with  safety. 

Clay.  Clay  is  one  of  the  most  deceptive  materials  upon  which 
to  build.  When  dry,  it  is  firm  and  reasonably  strong,  but  when 
wet  it  becomes  elastic  and  unreliable.  It  has  a  great  tendency 
to  mix  with  water.  Sometimes  it  is  found  combined  with  sand 
or  with  marl,  a  mixture  which  when  wet  is  especially  treacherous. 
If  the  foundation  is  built  on  clay,  great  care  should  be  used  to  see 
that  good  drainage  is  secured,  both  before  and  after  it  is  completed. 
The  effect  of  frost  on  clay  is  very  great,  and  all  foundations  on  it 
should  be  started  well  below  the  frost  line. 

Sand.  Sand  forms  an  excellent  material  on  which  to  build 
so  long  as  it  can  be  kept  from  shifting.  It  has,  however,  no  cohesion 
and  has  the  fluidity  of  water  when  water  is  added  to  it.  Therefore 
it  is  of  great  importance  that  sand  be  well  drained  both  before  and 
after  the  work  is  begun. 

Wet  Materials.  The  construction  of  foundations  in  quick- 
sand, under  water,  and  on  compressible  soils  is  one  of  the  most 
difficult  with  which  the  engineer  and  contractor  have  to  contend. 
Such  soils  are  likely  to  cause  a  great  deal  of  trouble,  anxiety,  and 
expense,  and  it  requires  the  greatest  skill  on  the  part  of  the  engineer 
to  design  the  foundations  and  all  of  the  resources  and  ingenuity 
of  the  contractor  to  build  them.  There  are  many  and  various 


BUILDING  SUPERINTENDENCE  77 

methods  employed  in  the  construction  of  foundations  on  materials 
of  this  sort,  comprising  cribs,  cofferdams,  hollow  cylinders,  caissons, 
piles,  freezing,  and  others. 

Types  of  Foundations.  There  are  three  general  types  of 
foundations  in  common  use — surface,  sometimes  called  spread 
and  also  floating  foundations;  pile  foundations,  either  of  wood 
or  concrete;  and  caisson  foundations,  which  are  columns  of  concrete 
or  other  masonry  carried  down  through  the  soft  upper  strata  of 
materials  to  the  solid  rock  or  hard  pan  located  some  distance  below. 
In  digging  the  caisson,  two  methods  are  used,  one  called  the  open, 
and  the  other,  in  which  compressed  air  is  required  to  keep  out  the 
soft  material,  called  the  pneumatic  process.  In  some  places,  notably 
Chicago,  round  holes  or  open  wells  are  sunk  through  the  upper 
materials  to  solid  rock  without  the  use  of  air,  the  holes  being  filled 
with  concrete. 

The  bearing  power  of  the  foundation  material  determines 
the  type  of  foundation  to  be  adopted.  Where  the  material  has 
high  bearing  power  and  will  not  be  disturbed,  the  surface  foundation 
may  be  the  better  one  to  use.  Where  the  soil  has  little  bearing 
power,  pile  or  caisson  foundations  may  be  the  cheaper.  In  some 
cases  where  the  structure  is  an  important  one,  the  best  foundations 
that  can  be  built  will  be  decided  upon,  regardless  of  cost. 

Proper  Location.  In  all  types  of  foundations,  excepting  of 
course  where  the  columns  come  directly  on  top  of  the  solid  rock, 
it  is  of  great  importance  that  the  column  be  located  in  the  center 
of  the  artificial  foundation,  or,  where  this  cannot  be  done,  that  the 
load  should  be  equalized  by  means  of  cantilever  girders  or  some 
similar  method. 

The  superintendent  should  be  alert  to  detect  any  attempt 
made  by  the  contractor  or  his  men  to  conceal  mistakes  made  in 
the  location  of  foundations.  This  is  sometimes  done  by  covering 
the  lower  portions  with  dirt,  which  hide  the  fact  that  the  top  layer, 
although  itself  in  the  right  location  to  receive  the  column  footing, 
is  off  the  center  of  the  foundation  below.  It  is  human  nature  to 
try  to  save  the  expense  involved  in  the  correction  of  such  errors, 
but  sometimes  by  doing  so  a  dangerous  condition  is  incurred.  The 
writer  once  heard  of  a  case  where  a  concrete  caisson,  carried  down 
one  hundred  feet  to  rock,  was  located  in  the  wrong  place  and  this 


78  BUILDING  SUPERINTENDENCE 

was  not  discovered  until  after  most  of  the  basement  columns  were 
in  place.  Thinking  to  avoid  the  loss  of  time  and  to  save  the  several 
thousand  dollars  which  correction  would  have  involved,  the  con- 
tractor had  the  top  of  the  caisson  secretly  removed  and  a  new 
top  placed  in  the  right  location  for  the  whole  caisson,  thus  making 
the  center  of  the  column  come  on  the  outer  edge  of  the  caisson 
below.  Fortunately  this  condition  was  discovered  in  time,  or  else 
a  serious  accident,  perhaps  involving  loss  of  life,  might  have  occurred. 

The  case  just  cited  is  an  extreme  one,  but  it  serves  to  illustrate 
what  some  men  do  when  tempted.  It  also  shows  that  the  superin- 
tendent of  this  building  was  negligent  in  his  duty,  or  ignorant  of 
his  business;  otherwise  he  would  have  detected  the  mistake  before 
the  contractor  had  had  an  opportunity  to  yield  to  the  temptation. 

Importance  of  Foundations.  The  stability  and  endurance  of 
any  structure  depend  largely  upon  the  character  of  its  foundations. 
The  superintendent  should  realize  that  it  is  of  the  utmost  importance 
that  he  give  this  part  of  the  work  special  attention.  He  should 
see  that  all  the  requirements  of  the  specifications  and  all  instructions 
issued  by  the  engineer  or  architect  are  faithfully  carried  out,  and 
he  should  report  without  delay  to  his  superior  any  probable  source 
of  failure  he  may  detect.  Besides  the  quality  of  workmanship 
and  materials  in  the  artificial  foundations,  there  are  two  things 
which  are  sources  of  failure  and  which  must  be  guarded  against — 
inequality  of  settlement,  and  lateral  escape  of  the  supporting 
material. 

Concrete  and  Other  Masonry.  Nowadays  concrete  enters 
largely  into  all  foundation  work  chiefly  because  of  its  cheapness 
and  adaptability.  The  inspection  and  superintendence  of  it  is 
like  that  of  any  other  kind  of  concrete  and  masonry  work.  It  is 
a  study  in  itself  and  is  not  to  be  dwelt  upon  here. 

The  most  important  things  that  the  inspector  is  called  upon 
to  watch  are  the  quality  of  the  materials,  the  proportion  of  the 
ingredients,  the  thoroughness  of  the  mix,  and  the  method  of  placing, 
so  that  a  compact  and  homogeneous  mass  is  produced.  The  cement 
should  be  properly  tested.  In  the  best  practice,  it  comes  to  the 
job  with  the  test  tags  attached  to  the  bags,  and  there  should  be 
at  least  one  test  tag  to  every  ten  barrels  delivered.  The  superin- 
tendent should  satisfy  himself  either  by  means  of  the  tags  or  by 


BUILDING  SUPERINTENDENCE  79 

some  other  equally  accurate  method,  that  all  the  cement  has  sat- 
isfactorily passed  the  inspection.  Sand  should  be  clean  and  sharp. 
The  crushed  rock  or  the  gravel  should  be  clean  and  of  good  quality. 
The  water  used  in  the  mix  should  be  clean  and  free  from  all  grease 
or  acid;  the  mixing  should  be  thoroughly  done  by  some  good  me- 
chanical mixer  so  that  all  ingredients  are  well  mingled.  Care  should 
be  taken  that  the  right  amount  of  cement  is  used.  Cement  is  the 
most  expensive  ingredient,  so  that  the  temptation  is  to  put  in  a 
smaller  quantity  than  is  called  for  by  the  specifications;  and  because 
of  its  nature,  it  is  harder  to  detect  a  shortage  of  it  than  of  the  other 
elements  in  the  mixed  concrete.  Concrete  should  be  thoroughly 
rammed  in  place;  it  should  not  be  so  dry  as  to  prevent  its  flowing 
into  all  parts  of  the  foundation.  Usually,  the  specifications  covering 
the  work  describe  fully  the  proportion  and  quality  of  the  materials 
and  the  method  of  mixing  and  placing.  The  inspector  has  little 
difficulty  in  seeing  that  a  good  job  of  concrete  work  is  done,  if  he 
carefully  studies  these  specifications. 

Foundation  Steel.  In  all  the  different  types  of  foundations 
used  for  steel  structures,  steel  of  some  shape  and  design  is  generally 
to  be  found. 

The  common  practice  among  engineers  is  to  bed  this  foundation 
steel  in  concrete  without  painting  it,  knowing  as  they  do  that  cement 
is  one  of  the  best  preservatives  of  steel.  When  steel  is  so  buried, 
care  should  be  exercised  to  see  that  it  is  cleaned  of  all  dirt,  mud,  loose 
rust,  and  especially  loose  scale;  in  other  words,  prepared  so  that 
nothing  comes  between  the  steel  and  the  concrete.  To  preserve 
the  steel,  the  cement  must  touch  it;  therefore,  the  concrete  should 
be  so  rammed  and  spaded  that  all  parts  of  the  steel  are  thoroughly 
covered  by  the  cement. 

Pile  Foundations.  Where  pile  foundations  are  used,  the 
inspector  needs  only  to  follow  the  engineer's  specifications  governing 
the  work,  using  common  sense  and  good  judgment  in  the  application 
of  them.  He  should  always  be  on  the  job  and  watch  with  his  own 
eyes  the  progress  of  the  work.  He  should  never  take  for  granted 
that  the  wrork  is  being  done  properly.  If  the  piles  are  of  wood,  the 
inspector  is  required  to  see  that  each  is  straight,  sound,  and  of 
the  required  length.  If  the  piles  are  of  concrete,  the  inspector  sees 
that  the  core  is  driven  to  a  proper  depth;  that  the  core  does  not 


80  BUILDING  SUPERINTENDENCE 

collapse  below  the  surface  before  the  concrete  is  placed;  that  the 
concrete  is  properly  proportioned  and  mixed;  and,  as  stated  before, 
that  all  the  piles  are  driven  in  the  right  location. 

Caissons.  Caisson  work  is  a  specialty  in  itself  and  the  con- 
tractors undertaking  it  are  nearly  always  experienced  and  equipped 
with  especial  knowledge  as  to  methods  and  procedure.  The  inspec- 
tion of  it  consists  chiefly  in  seeing  that  the  caisson  is  plumb,  in 
passing  upon  and  accepting  the  bottom  when  this  is  reached,  and 
in  ascertaining  whether  or  not  the  concrete  or  other  masonry  is 
properly  proportioned,  mixed,  and  placed. 

Caisson  work  is  almost  always  carried  on  continuously,  twenty- 
four  hours  a  day.  This  must  be  done  when  soft  material  is 
encountered,  for  otherwise  the  caisson  would  be  inclined  to  fill  during 
the  idle  hours.  The  superintendent  or  inspector  should  hold  him- 
self in  readiness  at  all  times  of  the  day  or  night  to  inspect  and  pass 
on  the  bottoms,  when  notified  by  the  men  that  these  are  ready. 
It  is  generally  dangerous  to  leave  a  caisson  standing  idle  long; 
it  is  also  expensive  to  keep  it  clean  and  ready  for  concrete  for  any 
length  of  time. 

Settlement  of  Adjacent  Structures.  One  important  duty  to 
be  performed  by  the  superintendent  where  the  caissons  are  being 
sunk  near  other  structures  liable  to  injury  by  settlement,  is  to  see 
that  no  voids  are  left  outside  of  the  caisson  shell  or  lagging.  The 
men  are  likely  to  become  careless  in  this  respect,  particularly  where 
the  work  is  rushed.  Such  neglect  is  one  of  the  principal  causes 
of  settlement  in  surrounding  structures;  it  can  readily  be  seen  that 
if  the  soil  has  nothing  to  hold  or  support  it,  it  will  be  squeezed  out 
of  place  by  any  heavy  weight  and  will  move  until  it  encounters 
something  that  stops  it.  Movement  causes  settlement  and  this 
is  a  dangerous  thing.  The  squeezing  of  water  out  of  the  soil  also 
leads  to  the  same  result.  It  is  sometimes  practically  impossible 
to  prevent  some  settlement,  in  which  case  the  safe  and  the  cus- 
tomary thing  to  do  is  to  shore  up  the  adjacent  or  adjoining  structure, 
placing  it  upon  jackscrews  so  that,  as  the  foundations  settle,  the 
superstructure  can  be  held  to  its  proper  level.  Shoring  work  is 
in  itself  a  special  trade,  and  all  such  work  should  be  given  into  the 
hands  of  an  experienced  shorer  or  house  mover,  so  that  it  will  be 
properly  and  safely  handled. 


BUILDING  SUPERINTENDENCE  81 

Erection  of  Superstructure 

Standard  Erection  Specifications.  After  the  foundations  are 
in  place,  and  the  derricks,  hoisting  engines,  and  other  parts  of  the 
erection  equipment  are  set  up  ready  for  work,  the  steel  for  the 
superstructure  will  commence  to  arrive. 

Covering  the  erection  of  the  superstructure,  we  quote  from 
the  standard  specifications  of  the  United  States  Navy  Department, 
Bureau  of  Yards  and  Docks,  which  state  the  matter  tersely  as 
follows : 

FIELD  WORK 

Unloading,  Storing,  and  Handling.  Material  shall  be  unloaded, 
stored,  and  handled  in  such  a  manner  and  with  such  appliances  and  care  as 
to  prevent  the  distorting  and  injuring  of  the  members;  material  which  is  injured 
shall  be  repaired  or  replaced,  if  necessary,  as  may  be  required  by  the  officer 
in  charge  and  at  the  expense  of  the  contractor. 

Erecting.  All  field  connections  shall  be  riveted.  The  various  members 
forming  parts  of  a  completed  frame  or  structure,  after  being  assembled,  shall 
be  accurately  aligned  and  adjusted  before  riveting  is  begun.  All  requirements 
specified  for  shop  work  which  are  applicable  shall  apply  to  the  field  work. 

System  in  Handling  Steel.  Sequence  in  Arrival.  System 
in  any  work  means  speed  and  economy,  and  this  is  particularly 
true  in  the  erection  of  steel.  Theoretically,  the  steel  should  come 
to  the  structure  in  such  sequence  and  with  just  enough  rapidity 
so  that  it  can  be  taken  from  the  car  or  wagon  and  placed  in  its  per- 
manent position  without  rehandling — an  ideal  arrangement  almost 
never  attained.  Under  no  circumstances  ^should  any  quantity 
of  material  be  allowed  to  accumulate  at  the  building  site,  which 
cannot  be  put  in  place  at  once.  The  cost  of  moving  materials, 
and  the  consequent  delays  in  getting  them  out  of  the  way  of  con- 
struction work,  in  the  long  run  amount  to  a  considerable  sum. 
Then,  too,  every  time  the  material  is  handled  it  is  subject  to  injury, 
and  in  some  poorly  systematized  jobs  the  steel  is  moved  so  often 
that  most  of  the  paint  is  worn  off. 

Sorting  Yard.  When  the  steel  comes  from  any  distance  to 
the  shop,  especially  where  it  has  to  be  shipped  in  over  railroads, 
the  experienced  and  capable  contractor  will  provide  a  sorting  and 
storage  yard  handy  to  the  job.  As  the  steel  arrives,  it  is  sorted 
and  stored  so  that  it  can  be  easily  picked  up  hi  proper  sequence, 
as  needed  in  the  erection  work. 


82  BUILDING  SUPERINTENDENCE 

The  storage  and  sorting  yard  allows  the  steel  to  be  shipped 
some  time  before  it  is  to  be  used  at  the  building.  Thus  shortages 
are  discovered  early,  and  this  tends  to  insure  the  erection  work 
against  delays. 

A  quantity  of  steel  ready  for  the  work,  provided  it  is  not  piled 
in  a  confused  mass,  acts  as  a  stimulus  to  the  men,  for  they  usually 
put  forth  greater  effort  if  they  can  see  work  ahead  of  them.  If 
the  material  is  coming  to  the  job  in  an  uncertain  manner,  the  men 
will  be  inclined  to  "nurse"  their  jobs  so  as  to  avoid  a  lay-off  and 
consequent  loss  of  wages  while  awaiting  the  arrival  of  more 
steel.  Then  again,  the  men  usually  like  to  vie  with  each  other 
in  the  speed  of  their  work,  provided  things  are  moving  smoothly 
and  the  material  is  coming  to  them  in  the  right  quantities.  This 
spirit  of  rivalry  not  only  adds  zest  to  the  job,  but  causes  it  to  be 
finished  more  quickly.  The  best  men  like  to  work  on  something 
that  is  being  handled  properly;  they  like  the  excitement  in  the 
rushed  work;  they  like  a  foreman  who,  while  treating  them  fairly, 
also  pushes  the  work;  and,  on  the  other  hand,  they  dislike  a  job 
that  is  poorly  handled  and  one  that  drags  along. 

It  costs  something  to  operate  a  storage  and  sorting  yard,  but 
this  is  often  found  to  be  money  well  spent  and  a  saving  in  the 
long  run. 

Injured  Steel.  When  steel  is  bent  or  twisted  out  of  shape 
through  unskilful  and  careless  handling,  either  during  transportation 
or  at  the  site,  it  must  be  carefully  straightened  and  repaired.  If 
any  piece  is  very  badly  out  of  shape,  the  best  thing  to  do  is  to  have 
it  replaced  with  a  new  one;  if  the  bend  is  not  serious,  however, 
the  piece  may  be  straightened  after  heating  it  to  a  red  heat;*  after 
this  it  should  be  again  heated  all  over  to  a  red  heat  and  then  left 
to  cool  slowly.  This  process  is  called  annealing  and  is  for  the 
purpose  of  restoring  to  the  steel  all  of  its  original  strength  and  of 
securing  homogeneity  of  the  structure  of  the  metal  that  is  supposed 
to  be  injured  by  unequal  heating  or  by  the  manipulation  attending 
the  straightening  process. 

Steps  in  Erection  Process.  Steel  structures,  as  they  are  designed 
in  these  days,  are  very  rapidly  erected.  In  a  tall  building  as  many 

*  Steel  and  iron  are  injured  and  rendered  brittle  by  being  worked  at  any  heat  less  than  a 
red  heat. 


BUILDING  SUPERINTENDENCE  83 

as  four  stories  have  been  erected  in  one  week  or  six  working 
days. 

The  different  steps  taken  in  the  erection  of  a  tall  building  are 
about  as  follows:  The  columns,  girders,  beams,  and  all  the  large 
pieces  are  assembled  in  place  by  means  of  the  derricks,  etc.,  the 
pieces  being  held  together  by  temporary  or  erection  bolts.  Usually 
the  steel  men  use  just  as  few  of  these  bolts  as  they  can,  as  it  takes 
time  to  put  them  in  place.  A  gang  of  men  now  follow  who  put 
in  the  small  pieces,  such  as  the  separators,  tie-rods,  and  short  and 
light  pieces  of  beams,  and  do  other  work  which  can  be  handled 
readily  without  the  use  of  heavy  equipment.  In  the  meantime 
another  gang  is  busy  plumbing  up  the  structure  by  means  of  guys 
in  which  are  inserted  turnbuckles,  and  by  means  of  shores  or  wooden 
timbers  set  diagonally  between  the  foot  of  one  column  and  the 
top  of  the  next.  These  shores  are  tightened  by  means  of  either 
wedges  or  jackscrews.  After  the  structure  has  been  assembled 
and  plumbed,  aligned  and  adjusted,  the  riveting  is  commenced. 
It  is  of  great  importance  for  the  safety  of  the  structure  that  the 
riveting  be  started  as  early  as  possible;  it  should  never  be  farther 
than  four  stories  behind  the  derricks. 

Temporary  Plank  Floors.  The  factory  laws  in  some  States 
require  that  temporary  plank  floors  covering  the  entire  area  of 
the  structure  be  placed  on  the  steel  as  fast  as  it  is  erected,  thus 
providing  a  safe  place  for  the  workmen  and  affording  protection 
against  the  dropping  of  bolts,  rivets,  etc.,  on  persons  working  below. 

Plumbing  and  Alignment.  The  shores  and  guys  which  the 
plumbing-up  gang  have  placed  should  be  left  in  position  until  they 
are  in  the  way  of  the  masonry  or  other  parts  of  the  work.  The 
riveting  should  never  go  ahead  of  the  plumbing-up.  Whether  or 
not  the  structure  is  plumb  is  determined  by  dropping  a  heavy 
plumb  bob  on  the  end  of  a  long  string  fastened  to  a  stick  secured 
to  the  top  of  the  column,  the  string  being  three  or  four  inches  away 
from  the  column.  Then  with  the  aid  of  a  pocket  rule,  the  space 
between  the  column  and  the  string  is  measured  at  different  heights 
of  the  column;  if  these  distances  are  found  to  vary,  the  column 
is  pulled  by  means  of  the  guy  or  pushed  by  means  of  the  shores 
until  they  are  the  same. 

Provided  the  column  foundation  shoes  have  been  properly 


84  BUILDING  SUPERINTENDENCE 

set  to  the  right  level,  there  is  little  use  of  placing  the  level  on  the 
floors  after  they  have  been  erected  because,  unless  an  error  has  been 
made  in  the  fabrication  of  the  columns,  the  floors  follow  the  levels 
of  the  shoes.  Therefore  it  is  customary  to  consider  a  building  in 
proper  alignment  after  it  has  been  made  plumb.  If  the  top  of  the 
base  plates  and  the  ends  of  the  columns  have  been  properly  planed 
or  milled  off,  and  if  the  base  plates  have  been  set  level,  there  is  little 
difficulty  in  making  the  structure  plumb. 

Shims.  Where  careless  work  has  been  done,  the  contractor 
sometimes  tries  to  use  shims  in  the  joints  between  the  successive 
column  sections.  If  the  shims  are  of  such  a  nature  that  the  column 
loads  are  concentrated  on  a  smaller  area  of  the  column  section  than 
called  for  by  the  engineer's  design,  the  superintendent  should  not 
allow  them  to  remain.  Shimming  columns  is  the  easy  and  quick 
way  of  making  the  structure  plumb.  If  permitted  at  all,  the  shim 
should  be  made  of  a  tapered  plate  that  will  cover  the  entire  bottom 
or  top  of  the  column. 

Floor  Beams.  In  a  steel  building  where  fireproof  arches  are 
to  form  the  floor  construction,  care  should  be  exercised  to  see  that 
all  floor  beams  are  set  parallel.  Where  both  ends  of  the  beams 
are  connected  to  girders,  there  will  be  little  difficulty  in  this  unless 
the  shop  has  fabricated  the  steel  wrong.  It  is  where  the  ends  of 
the  beams  rest  upon  masonry  walls  that  the  most  care  should  be 
taken  in  making  them  parallel.  If  the  floor  construction  is  to  be 
of  fireproof  tile  arches,  the  superintendent  should  also  watch  to  see 
that  the  tie-rods  are  all  in  place  and  their  bolts  drawn  tight. 

Small  Castings.  The  superintendent  should  always  see  that 
wall  plates  are  put  in  place  under  all  beams  and  girders  that  rest 
on  masonry.  He  should  also  make  certain  that  all  cast-iron  and 
other  separators  are  properly  placed  and  that  none  are  omitted. 
These  separators  and  many  other  small  items  are  looked  upon  by 
the  men  as  of  little  consequence;  however,  if  the  designing  engineer 
had  not  thought  they  were  necessary,  he  would  not  have  included 
them  in  the  plan  of  the  structure,  and  it  is  safe  to  assume  that  he 
knows  best  what  should  go  into  it.  Moreover,  it  is  not  the  concern 
of  the  erection  gang  whether  these  items  are  needed  or  not;  if  the 
drawings  and  specifications  call  for  them,  it  is  the  business  of  the 
men  to  put  them  in  place. 


BUILDING  SUPERINTENDENCE 


85 


Field  Riveting.  Inspection.  The  inspection  of  the  riveting 
done  in  the  field  is  little  different  from  the  inspection  in  the  shop, 
and  all  of  the  requirements  listed  under  "Shop  Inspection"  apply 
to  the  field  work.  No  masonry,  fireproof  arches,  or  other  work 
which  may  cover  up  the  rivets  should  be  allowed  to  proceed  until 
the  riveting  has  been  thoroughly  inspected  and  all  defective  work 
rectified.  A  little  carelessness  in  this  respect  may  result  in  a  number 


Fig.  23.     "Little  David"  Riveting  Hammer 
Courtesy  of  I nger soil-Rand  Company,  New  York  City 

of  holes  being  left  without  rivets  and  sometimes  even  without  bolts 
to  fill  them. 

Methods.  Because  of  the  difficulty  of  reaching  the  places 
where  the  rivets  go,  and  because  of  the  conditions  surrounding 
the  work,  the  methods  used  to  drive  up  the  rivets  in  the  field  are 
not  so  good  as  those  available  in  the  shop.  When  the  erection 
job  is  a  small  one,  the  rivets  are  more  often  driven  up  by  hand. 
In  the  better  class  of  work  and  where  the  work  is  of  any  size,  they 
are  driven  up  by  means  of  pneumatic  hammers,  Fig.  23,  mechanical 
contrivances  actuated  by  compressed  air,  which  strike  many  blows 


86 


BUILDING  SUPERINTENDENCE 


each  second.  The  air  compressor,  Fig.  24,  usually  located  in  the  base- 
ment or  some  place  where  the  vibration  will  not  affect  the  structure, 
is  generally  large  enough  to  supply  air  to  several  hammers 
at  one  time.  The  air  is  piped  to  the  hammers,  the  last  length  of 
the  pipe  being  rubber  so  as  to  allow  the  hammer  to  be  moved  without 
delay  or  trouble. 

Necessarily,  because  of  the  size  of  the  equipment,  the  same 
amount  of  pressure  cannot  be  brought  to  bear  upon  the  field  rivets 
as  upon  the  shop  rivets,  for  the  shop  machines  are  larger  and  more 


Fig.  24.       Self-Oiling  Belt-Driven  Air  Compressor 
Courtesy  of  Blaisdell  Machinery  Company,  Bradford,  Pennsylvania 

powerful.  It  cannot  be  expected,  therefore,  that  as  good  a  job  of 
field  riveting  can  be  done  as  of  shop  riveting,  but  there  are  certain 
things  in  the  field  work  that  should  not  be  permitted,  viz,  loose 
rivets,  those  with  small  and  badly  formed  heads,  burned  rivets, 
and  those  which  are  driven  up  at  a  blue  heat,  that  is,  a  heat  ranging 
from  430  to  600  degrees. 

In  the  field  work  the  noles  are  not  likely  to  come  together 
so  well  as  do  the  holes  in  the  shop,  and  a  certain  amount  of  drifting 
by  the  use  of  the  driftpin  is  permitted.  If  the  holes  are  very  bad, 
however,  so  that  the  driftpin  does  not  readily  bring  them  together, 


BUILDING  SUPERINTENDENCE 


87 


TABLE  V 
Data  for  Plain  Rivets  of  Different  Diameters 


DIAMETER  OF  SHANK 

(in.) 

GRIP  OF 
RIVET 

i 

2 

1 

1 

1 

1 

(in) 

LENGTH  OF  SHANK 

(in.) 

1 

H 

H 

M 

2 

2| 

l 

I 

2 

2| 

21 

21 

1 

2 

2 

2f 

2£ 

21 

u 

21 

2 

21 

2! 

21 

ll 

2| 

2 

3 

3| 

3| 

11 

2J 

3 

3| 

3 

3£ 

2 

3 

I 

31 

3J 

3 

3| 

2} 

3 

! 

3f 

3| 

3* 

4 

2| 

3! 

3i 

4 

4i 

41 

2| 

31 

4; 

41 

4| 

4£ 

3 

4 

4^ 

4| 

4^ 

41 

3* 

4 

5 

5l 

5: 

5f 

5 

« 

5f 

5^ 

51 

4| 

5 

6| 

M 

6i 

6^ 

5 

6 

6f 

6f 

6i 

7 

NOTE.  The  lengths  of  shanks  for  countersunk  heads  will  be  the  lengths  given  above 
reduced  by  from  75  to  100  per  cent  of  the  diameter  of  the  shank. 

they  should  be  reamed  out  and  a  larger-sized  rivet  used  than  that 
called  for. 

Before  any  rivets  are  driven  up,  the  steel  plates  should  be  drawn 
together  as  tightly  as  possible  by  means  of  the  erection  bolts. 

Sizes  of  Rivets.  The  size  of  a  rivet  is  described  by  the  diameter 
and  length  of  the  shank  in  even  eighths  of  an  inch,  when  it  is  cold 
and  before  it  is  driven  up.  The  diameter  of  a  rivet  should  not  be 
over  fg  inch  greater  after  it  is  driven  than  it  is  before  it  is  heated. 
The  rivet  should,  however,  fill  the  hole  completely,  and  to  do  this 
it  should  be  heated  all  over  to  a  red  heat  in  daylight.  It  should 
not  fall  into  the  hole  but  require  a  slight  pressure  to  force  it  in. 

The  height  of  the  head  of  a  snap  rivet,  which  is  one  with  a 
conical  head  in  contradistinction  to  a  countersunk  rivet,  should 
be  about  two-thirds  the  diameter  of  the  shank,  and  the  diameter 
of  the  head  should  be  from  one  and  one-half  to  two  times  the  diam- 
eter of  the  shank.  The  grip  of  a  rivet  is  the  total  thickness  of  the 
plates  or  parts  of  metal  through  which  it  is  to  be  driven.  Its  proper 
length  is  determined  by  adding  together  the  grip,  the  length  of 


88  BUILDING  SUPERINTENDENCE 

rivet  required  to  make  one  head,  and  ^  inch  for  each  joint  between 
the  plates  to  allow  for  uneven  surfaces  which  prevent  closer  contact. 
To  this  must  be  added  about  9  per  cent  of  the  length  to  allow  for 
filling  the  rivet  hole,  which  is  usually  ^  inch  larger  than  the  rivet. 
In  Table  V  is  given  the  data  for  plain  rivets  of  various  diameters. 
Heating  Rivets.  The  heating  of  rivets  should  be  carefully 
watched.  Those  made  of  iron  are  not  as  liable  to  injury  from 
burning  as  are  those  of  steel.  The  rivet  should  be  heated  all  over 
to  a  red  heat  in  the  daytime;  the  men  will  try  to  slight  the  work 
by  heating  only  the  ends  on  which  the  head  is  formed.  Any  steel 
and  wrought  iron  is  rendered  brittle  and  its  strength  impaired  if 
it  is  worked,  that  is,  hammered,  etc.,  while  at  a  blue  heat,  from 
430  to  600  degrees.  It  will  be  seen,  therefore,  that  rivets  must 
be  driven  up  quickly  after  they  have  been  heated  to  the  right  tem- 
perature and  that  they  must  not  be  hammered  too  long  after  they 
are  in  the  holes.  The  forge  in  which  they  are  heated  should  be 
placed  as  close  to  the  rivet  hole  as  is  practical. 

Loose  Rivets.  All  loose  rivets  should  be  cut  out  and  new  ones 
driven  into  their  places.  The  attempt  to  make  them  seem  tight 
by  the  use  of  the  calking  iron  or  by  re-cupping  with  the  hammer 
should  never  be  allowed.  The  inspector  should  examine  each 
with  the  inspector's  hammer.  If  the  place  into  which  the  rivet  is 
to  be  driven  is  difficult  to  reach,  he  should  look  at  the  rivets  before 
the  staging  used  by  the  men  is  removed.  When  this  is  done,  how- 
ever, care  must  be  exercised  to  see  that  the  rivet  is  cold  to  the  touch 
before  it  is  tested  or  disturbed. 

Riveting  Gang.  A  riveting  gang  is  generally  composed  of 
four  men — the  heater,  the  passer,  the  bucker-up,  and  the  riveter; 
the  last  named  drives  the  rivet  and  is  boss  of  the  gang.  When 
there  are  a  number  of  gangs  there  is  a  boss  over  all  the  riveters 
who  reports  to  the  general  foreman.  There  are  also  boys  who 
carry  the  cold  rivets  from  the  storeroom  to  the  heaters  and  run 
other  errands. 

Bolts.  In  some  places  in  the  structure  it  is  found  impossible 
to  drive  up  rivets  properly,  and  the  holes  must  be  filled  with  bolts. 
If  the  connections  are  not  important,  that  is,  if  the  bolts  are  not 
depended  upon  to  carry  the  load  from  one  piece  to  the  next,  ordinary 
bolts  are  sufficient.  If  the  joint  is  an  important  one,  the  holes 


BUILDING  SUPERINTENDENCE  89 

should  be  reamed  out  and  bolts  f  should  be  used  which  have  been 
accurately  turned  down  in  a  lathe  to  a  size  that  will  exactly  fit 
the  hole  and  require  driving  to  put  into  place.  In  all  cases  where 
bolts  are  used,  after  the  nut  has  been  turned  up  as  far  as  it  will  go, 
the  screw  end  should  be  riveted  cold  by  hammering  it  until  the 
threads  are  deformed.  This  prevents  the  nut  from  working  loose, 
which  it  is  likely  to  do,  especially  if  there  be  some  vibration  in  the 
structure. 

Painting 

Object  of  Painting.  The  primary  object  in  painting  steel 
is  to  preserve  it.  All  steel  and  iron  absorb  more  or  less  oxygen 
when  exposed  directly  to  the  air  and  the  surface  soon  becomes 
coated  with  rust,  which  is  the  resultant  chemical  change  caused 
by  the  oxidizing  process.  Rust  is  formed  very  rapidly;  it  can  be 
for  a  time  interrupted  by  painting,  but  the  process  goes  on  slowly 
even  under  the  paint,  which  in  time  will  peel  off,  together  with  a 
layer  of  rust.  Rust  has  the  peculiar  quality  of  spreading  and 
extending  from  a  center,  if  there  is  the  slightest  chance  for  it  to 
do  so;  a  small  point  of  rust  on  the  metal  may  grow  under  the  surface 
of  the  paint.  Steel  and  iron  are  entirely  destroyed  in  time  by  the 
action  of  oxygen.  It  is  therefore  of  the  greatest  importance, 
especially  where  the  metal  is  buried  so  that  the  paint  cannot  be 
renewed  from  time  to  time,  that  the  metal  be  protected  from  the 
action  of  the  oxygen,  either  by  keeping  out  the  oxygen  or  by  neutraliz- 
ing it  chemically. 

Concrete  as  Preservative.  Lime  in  any  of  its  forms,  or  com- 
bined with  other  materials  to  make  cement,  seems  to  neutralize 
the  action  of  oxygen  on  iron  or  steel.  When  these  metals  are  to 
be  entirely  encased  with  concrete,  a  slight  amount  of  red  rust  does 
not  affect  the  lasting  qualities  of  the  metal  because  the  lime  counter- 
acts the  action  of  the  oxygen.  However,  no  scale  or  loose  rust 
should  be  left  on  the  metal  when  it  is  buried  in  the  concrete. 

Kind  of  Paint.  Paint  is  supposed  to  be  a  waterproof  and 
air-tight  covering  that  keeps  out  the  oxygen.  There  are  many 
brands  on  the  market  which  are  sold  for  this  purpose.  The  prin- 
cipal duty  of  the  superintendent  or  inspector  is  to  satisfy  himself 
that  without  a  doubt  the  contractor  is  using  the  specified  brand 
and  quality  of  paint,  and  furthermore  to  see  that  all  rust  of  any 


90  BUILDING  SUPERINTENDENCE 

character  and  all  foreign  matter,  acid,  etc.,  is  removed  from  the 
steel  just  before  the  paint  is  applied.  The  first  or  priming  coat 
is  of  course  the  most  important;  this  coat  is,  however,  seldom  applied 
at  the  building.  Some  paints  when  used  for  the  priming  coat  seem 
to  aid  the  oxidizing,  producing  rust  rather  than  preventing  it. 
These,  of  course,  must  be  most  carefully  avoided. 

Paint  for  steel  must  have  the  property  of  expanding  and  con- 
tracting in  about  the  same  ratio  as  the  steel  itself;  otherwise  it 
cracks  and  leaves  the  metal  exposed  to  the  air. 

Inspection  of  Paint.  A  good  way  to  determine  whether  or 
not  the  right  paint  is  being  used  is  to  make  the  contractor  show 
his  receipted  bills  for  the  materials.  Most  good  and  reputable 
manufacturers  and  dealers  of  high-grade  paints  will  aid  in  the 
detection  of  substitution.  They  are  usually  compelled  to  do  this 
to  protect  the  reputation  of  their  paint.  The  manufacturer,  when 
asked,  keeps  the  superintendent  informed  as  to  how  many  square 
feet  of  surface  the  paint  should  cover  and  also  what  quantities 
of  paint  are  being  purchased  for  the  particular  job  in  question.  With 
this  information,  together  with  the  amount  of  surface  that  is  being 
covered  at  the  job,  the  superintendent  can  soon  tell  whether  or 
not  the  right  paint  is  being  used.  This  method  cannot  always  be 
depended  upon,  however,  and  when  any  doubt  exists,  other  methods 
of  detection  should  be  used.  A  chemical  analyst  will  sometimes 
aid  in  this.  Any  chemist  will  also  tell  the  superintendent  of  some 
rough  test  which  the  superintendent  can  himself  make,  such  as 
the  burning  of  lead  paints,  and  what  the  results  will  be  for  pure 
and  impure  paint. 

In  order  to  see  that  the  required  number  of  coats  of  paint 
are  given  to  the  work,  it  is  a  good  plan  to  have  each  coat  made  of 
a  different  color  or  of  a  different  shade  of  the  same  color. 

MISCELLANEOUS  PROBLEMS 
Superintendent  and  Contractors*  Organizations 

There  are  many  kinds  of  contracts,  and  contractors  to  handle 
them.  Each  contractor  has  his  own  opinion  regarding  his  organiza- 
tion. An  organization  varies  with  the  amount  of  work  the  con- 
tractor executes  in  a  year  and  also  the  size  of  the  job  or  jobs  that 
he  has.  The  small  contractor  with  small  work  will  look  after  all 


BUILDING  SUPERINTENDENCE  91 

the  details  himself  and  outside  of  the  few  men  he  actually  has  to 
set  the  steel,  will  employ  no  other  help  whatsoever.  He  will  have 
his  office  "in  his  hat".  A  concern  or  an  individual  contractor 
handling  a  medium  amount  of  work  has  a  small  organization  to 
assist  in  carrying  out  contracts,  while  a  large  firm  or  contractor 
has  a  very  complete  organization  to  handle  all  the  details  of  large 
contracts  in  the  most  complete  manner  possible. 

Large  Organizations.  The  large  contracting  firms  have  the 
following  general  officers:  president,  vice-president,  general  man- 
ager, chief  engineer,  superintendent,  treasurer,  auditor,  purchasing 
agent,  and  others  who  have  charge  of  the  different  parts  of  the  work. 
Sometimes  the  duties  of  more  than  one  of  the  officers  are  performed 
by  one  person.  The  work  which  these  officers  have  to  oversee 
resolves  itself  into  different  departments,  such  as  the  executive, 
engineering,  contracting,  purchasing,  auditing  and  accounting, 
superintending,  storehouse,  and  transportation  departments. 

Field  Organization.  The  work  in  the  field  will  probably  be 
in  direct  charge  of  a  contractor's  superintendent,  or  if  the  job  is 
small,  of  a  foreman  simply.  The  contractor's  superintendent  will 
have  a  foreman  or  several  foremen  under  him,  who  have  charge  of 
certain  areas  or  parts  of  the  work.  These  men  will  have  as  assistants 
a  number  of  sub-foremen  usually  called  "straw  bosses"  who  are  in 
direct  charge  of  the  men. 

The  theory  on  which  such  an  organization  is  based  is  that 
any  one  man  has  the  time  and  capacity  to  handle  and  deal  with 
only  a  certain  number  of  men.  It  would  manifestly  be  impossible 
for  one  superintendent  to  direct  two  thousand  workmen  doing  many 
different  kinds  of  work,  unless  he  had  someone  to  help  him.  If  he 
attempted  it  alone,  he  would  not  have  time  to  watch  each  man, 
and  as  a  result  the  men  would  be  inclined  to  take  advantage  of 
him,  and  not  to  work  when  his  back  was  turned.  Furthermore, 
one  man  could  not  plan  the  work  so  as  to  keep  all  the  workmen 
busy  and  at  the  same  time  direct  them  as  to  the  manner  hi  which 
the  work  should  be  done.  The  superintendent,  however,  has 
time  to  plan  the  work,  if  he  has  foremen  to  see  that  the  men 
do  it  as  he  outlines  it.  In  this  way,  the  superintendent  has  to 
deal  with  only  a  few,  instead  of  directly  with  a  thousand,  and 
he  can  hold  the  foremen  accountable  for  the  performance  of  their 


92  BUILDING  SUPERINTENDENCE 

duty,  while  they  in  turn,  have  the  same  control  over  the  sub- 
foremen,  and  so  on. 

In  addition  to  the  foremen  and  the  sub-foremen,  the  superin- 
tendent will  have  one  or  more  timekeepers  and  material  clerks, 
depending  upon  the  size  of  the  job.  When  the  job  is  of  medium 
size,  one  boy  can  both  handle  the  timekeeping  and  also  order  and 
check  up  the  material  as  it  arrives.  On  small  jobs,  both  of  these 
things  are  done  by  the  foreman. 

Proper  Size  of  Force.  There  is  always  a  proper  size  for  the 
gang  any  one  man  should  handle.  If  fewer  men  than  this  number 
are  in  the  gang,  the  foreman  does  not  have  to  work  as  hard  as  he 
should  and  the  cost  of  his  salary  per  man  is  excessive.  If  there 
is  more  than  the  required  number,  then  the  foreman  does  not  get 
the  maximum  amount  of  work  out  of  them,  and  loss  occurs  in 
that  way. 

Every  organization  must  be  modified  to  suit  the  conditions 
and  the  work.  A  very  easy  and  common  mistake  is  to  make  an 
organization  top  heavy  with  so  many  foremen  and  sub-foremen 
that  there  is  not  enough  work  to  go  around  to  keep  the  different 
ones  busy.  This  method  makes  the  general  expense  run  beyond 
that  which  is  economical  or  possible  from  the  standpoint  of  cost. 
A  job  is  properly  organized  when  each  man  from  the  head  down  to 
the  water  boy  has  to  work  hard  and  continuously,  but  not  so 
hard  that  the  work  suffers  on  account  of  lack  of  time. 

Proper  Use  of  Organization.  Early  after  the  contract  is  let, 
it  is  well  for  the  superintendent  to  inform  himself  as  to  the  con- 
tractor's organization,  if  he  has  not  already  come  in  contact 
with  it,  in  order  to  know  who  is  the  proper  person  with  whom 
to  deal  in  regard  to  certain  matters.  Like  any  tool,  the  superin- 
tendent must  know  how  to  use  the  organization  properly. 

Superintendent  and  Superior  Officers 

Contact  with  Employer.  If  the  owner  is  a  corporation  or 
other  large  concern,  it  will  be  the  duty  of  the  superintendent  to 
find  out  enough  about  the  organization  so  that  when  called  upon 
he  will  know  through  what  channels  to  act.  Ordinarily,  however, 
if  the  superintendent  is  employed  by  the  engineer  or  the  architect, 
he  should  take  up  with  his  employer  all  matters  that  need  to  go 


BUILDING  SUPERINTENDENCE  93 

to  the  owners  and  the  more  important  business  items  in  connection 
with  the  contractor's  work.  In  all  dealings  with  the  owner  and 
with  the  contractor,  the  superintendent  must  ascertain  from  his 
superior  just  how  far  his  duties  are  to  extend,  and  must  act  accordingly. 
The  young  superintendent  oftentimes  is  overzealous  and  assumes 
responsibilities  that  will  cause  much  trouble  to  his  employer  and 
humiliation  for  himself. 

Necessary  Qualities  for  Superintendent.  Tact.  The  super- 
intendent is  expected  to  help  his  superior  in  every  way  he  can, 
and  should  do  so  for  his  own  advancement,  but  it  must  be  real 
help.  He  should  take  up  with  his  superior  all  matters  that  may 
arise  outside  the  routine  of  his  daily  work — not  trivial  things, 
however,  for  superiors  do  not  want  to  be  bothered  with  them. 
He  should  also  make  it  a  point  in  some  way  to  keep  his  boss  informed 
regarding  his  own  actions  and  rulings,  but  he  must  remember  that 
there  is  a  proper  time  to  do  this;  the  man  over  him  has  much  work 
to  attend  to  which  often  cannot  be  interrupted  without  causing 
trouble.  On  the  other  hand,  the  superintendent  must  not  go  too 
far  the  other  way  and  neglect  making  proper  reports  through  fear 
of  annoying  his  superior.  In  other  words,  the  superintendent 
must  cultivate  tact. 

Initiative.  The  more  initiative  a  man  has,  the  more  certain  is 
he  to  advance  in  his  work;  but  this  quality  must  be  directed  in 
the  right  way. 

Webster  defines  "initiative"  as  being  "an  introductory  step 
or  move;  an  originating  or  beginning".  Of  course  everything  must 
have  a  beginning,  but  if  too  many  things  are  begun  at  the  same 
time  on  any  one  job,  confusion  results.  In  any  successful  work, 
there  must  be  a  system  with  a  head.  If  the  head  takes  the  initiative 
along  certain  lines  and  at  the  same  time  his  subordinate,  without 
notice  to  his  superior,  does  the  same  along  other  lines  which  conflict, 
trouble  will  surely  result.  While  the  superintendent  may  make 
plans  for  the  work,  he  must,  before  he  puts  his  ideas  into  action, 
find  out  that  they  do  not  interfere  with  other  parts  of  the  work 
and,  most  important,  that  they  meet  with  the  approval  of  his 
employer. 

Push.  The  successful  superintendent  is  always  pushing.  He 
keeps  his  men  keyed  up,  and  he  is  probably  of  the  opinion  that 


94  BUILDING  SUPERINTENDENCE 

this  is  one  of  the  most  important  and  most  difficult  parts  of  his 
work.  Making  people  start  and  finish  their  tasks  on  time  requires 
all  the  diplomacy,  tact,  and  force  of  which  a  superintendent  may 
be  possessed. 

Importance  of  System 

System  and  Speed.  The  speed  with  which  buildings  and 
structures  are  finished  depends  largely  upon  system.  Every  set 
of  mechanics  with  their  materials  must  be  ready  to  start  at  the 
proper  time.  No  department  should  wait  for  any  other.  The 
architect,  engineer,  superintendent,  contractor,  all  sub-contractors, 
and  the  different  mechanics  have  their  certain  duties  to  perform, 
and  all  must  work  hand  in  hand  to  accomplish  the  result.  It  is 
just  as  harmful  to  the  work  for  the  architect  or  the  superintendent 
to  neglect  something  at  the  critical  time,  as  it  is  for  the  contractor, 
and  sometimes  the  results  are  more  injurious.  The  great  secret 
of  success  in  construction  work,  as  in  other  work,  is  constant,  unre- 
mitting "push"  in  all  departments. 

Proper  Sequence  of  Work.  All  persons  in  construction  work 
soon  learn  that  there  are  certain  times  to  do  certain  things,  and 
that,  just  as  in  other  walks  of  life,  there  is  a  psychological  moment 
in  the  progress  of  the  work  which  should  be  seized  to  insure  success. 
If  these  moments  are  neglected,  the  chance  to  do  the  thing  in  the 
shortest  and  most  economical  way  will  be  lost  forever,  and  great 
additional  effort,  worry,  and  delay  will  result. 

Many  illustrations  of  the  workings  of  this  truth  can  be  given. 
Suppose  that  in  a  tall  office  building,  when  the  erection  derricks 
reach  the  eighth  floor  ready  to  put  in  place  all  the  steel  of  that 
floor,  that  for  some  reason,  either  because  the  engineer  did  not 
make  the  design  at  the  right  time,  or  because  the  shop  did  not 
fabricate  the  piece  when  it  should  have  done  so,  one  of  the  large 
heavy  floor  girders  cannot  be  put  in  place.  True,  the  balance  of 
the  steel  can  be  erected  and  the  building  go  on  up,  but  the  point 
is  that  while  the  derricks  were  in  place  to  erect  the  eighth  floor,  the 
girder  could  have  been  erected  in  five  minutes'  time  and  at  a  com- 
paratively small  cost.  Having  to  raise  it  into  place  afterward 
will  doubtless  take  hours,  perhaps  days,  and  incur  many  times 
the  original  expense,  besides  interfering  with  other  work  and  delaying 


BUILDING  SUPERINTENDENCE  95 

that  which  might  have  been  completed  if  the  girder  had  been  erected 
at  the  proper  time.  Furthermore,  there  is  no  telling  how  far- 
reaching  the  delay  may  be. 

The  writer  has  in  mind  another  example  of  the  mischief  of 
doing  things  at  the  wrong  time.  The  superintendent  of  a  job 
required  that  certain  supports  holding  up  the  forms  of  a  concrete 
roof  of  a  building  nearing  completion  be  taken  down  too  soon. 
The  result  was  that  the  entire  rear  portion  of  the  building  crumbled 
into  the  basement,  and  the  accident  wiped  out  the  owner's  entire 
fortune. 

Not  only  must  the  superintendent  do  his  own  work  promptly, 
but  of  all  men  on  the  job  he  is  the  one  who  should  know  the  very 
best  time  for  doing  each  piece  of  work. 


INDEX. 


INDEX 


PAGE 

A-frame  derrick 56 

B 

Builders'  or  house  derrick 49 

Building  superintendence 1-95 

material,  inspection  for  steel  work 24 

steel  construction 1 

Bull  wheels 51 

C 

Cableways 60 

Caissons 80 

Cast  iron 25 

Chains 63 

Cordage 64 

Cotton  rope 65 

Crane  derrick __ 56 

D 

Derricks 42 

capacity  of 44 

types  of I 48 

F 

Field  organization 91 

Field  riveting • 85 

Floor  beams 84 

Foundation  shoes 73 

Foundations , 75 

importance  of 78 

pile 79 

steel 79 

Full-circle  stiff-leg  derrick 54 

G 

General  superintendence  problems 5 

business  details,  handling  of 9 

contractor's  organization 8 

designing  engineer  vs.  actualities  of  contractor 6 

drawings,  duties  regarding 20 

forethought,  value  of 5 

handling  men,  problem  of 6 

legal  points  encountered _ 11 


2  INDEX 

General  superintendence  problems  (Continued)  J>.\GB 

mistakes,  judgment  in  handling 5 

progress  charts 8 

Grillage  beams 75 

Grouting  shoes 75 

Guy  derrick 50 

H 

Hemp 64 

Hoisting  engines 62 

J 

Jute 64 

M 

Manila  hemp 64 

Mill  inspection 24 

P 

Painting 89 

concrete  as  preservative 89 

object  of 89 

paint,  inspection  of 90 

paint,  kind  of 89 

Pole  derrick 48 

Preventer  guys _ 53 


Shims _ 84 

Shop  inspection 30 

drawings  in  shop *_ 31 

reports 38 

shop  processes 31 

Sisal 64 

Steel  construction 1 

good  design 2 

structural  steel 1 

structure,  classes  of 1 

work,  divisions  of 2 

Steel  work,  erection  of 24 

adjacent  structures,  settlement  of 80 

cablewaya -  60 

caissons 80 

cordage 64 

derricks 42 

engines,  power,  etc 67 

erection  process,  steps  in 82 

field  work  _.                                           81 


INDEX  3 

Steel  work,  erection  of  (Continued)  PAGE 

field  riveting 85 

floor  beams 84 

foundations 75 

handling  steel,  system  in 81 

hoisting  engines 62 

lines  and  levels  and  how  to  establish  them 71 

painting 89 

plumbing  and  alignment 83 

shims 84 

superintendent  and  superior  officers 92 

superstructure,  erection  of 81 

tackle 62 

Stiff-leg  derrick ..                                                                                      51 

Structural  steel 1 

Structures,  erection,  inspection,  and  superintendence  of 38 

adequal  e  equipment 41 

contracting  engineering 42 

equipment,  capacity  of 40 

erecting  steel 39 

kinds  cf 38 

omission  of  small  items 41 

Superintendent  and  contractors'  organizations 90 

field 91 

force,  proper  size  of 92 

large 91 

proper  use  of _ 92 

Tables 

data  for  plain  rivets  of  different  diameters 87 

specifications  for  6x19  hemp-center  wire  hoisting  rope 66 

specifications  for  6x7  hemp-center  wire  standing  rope 67 

standard  chains,  specifications  for 63 

weight  and  strength  of  manila  and  sisal  ropes 64 

Tackle 62 

Tower  derrick.  _ 58 

W 

Wire  rope 65 

Wrought  iron 26 


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